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The Missing Tool of Security: Political Agreements

Israel’s security doctrine has failed because it relies on force while neglecting the political arrangements that can reduce enemies’ incentives to fight.

מו״מ שמוּם
Telem · By Yosef Zeira · 22 July 2025 · read the original in Hebrew →

The war in Gaza has placed back on the agenda the question of the validity of Israel’s security policy, which is based on what is called the “security triangle”: deterrence, early warning, and decision. It seems that all its sides have collapsed: deterrence did not work on Hamas; no warning was given on the eve of the attack of October 7; and decision, as of this writing, after a year and ten months of fighting, has not been achieved. Why, then, did Israel’s security policy fail to protect it? Has this policy reached the end of its life? And why has Israel not won its wars since the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War?

Over the years, several attempts have been made to update this policy, the most prominent of them by Dan Meridor (1987), Israel Tal (1989), David Ivry (1998), the Meridor Committee (2006), and Gadi Eisenkot (2015). While all these efforts were made within the broad confines of the security establishment, I will present here an attempt to grapple with the questions arising about security policy not with the tools of military thought, nor even with the tools of conflict studies, but with tools drawn from the mode of thinking in the social sciences in general, and economics in particular.

The Birth of Security Policyהולדתה של מדיניות הביטחון

Although the three components of the security triangle mentioned above are attributed to David Ben-Gurion, they do not appear in his writings. Ben-Gurion wrote the central document on security in 1953. The document, approved by a government decision, dealt mainly with the characteristics of the IDF as a people’s army, including a large reserve component and the conscription of women. In this way Israel created a substantial force multiplier, enabling it in wartime to mobilize an army large relative to its small population. The first references to the security triangle in Israeli military discourse appeared only during the 1960s. These three tools — deterrence, early warning, and decision — were derived from the existential problem of maintaining Israel’s security in a hostile region, where it suffers from numerical inferiority and from the absence of sufficient geographic depth.

The three tools were intended to help Israel achieve its overarching security objective: not to lose a war, since such a defeat was perceived as the end of Jewish national existence in the country. Deterring the enemy was meant to weaken his motivation to attack Israel by conveying the message that such an attack would exact a very heavy price. If deterrence failed, it would be necessary to defeat the enemy’s attack on the battlefield, and such a decision is easier to achieve if the earliest possible warning is received of a military attack on Israel.

In addition to these three components, Israel relied on two further tools, less present in public discourse. The first of these, which may be called “support,” was the securing of support for Israel from at least one great power. During the Mandate period this was Britain, by virtue of the Balfour Declaration, although that support was accompanied by tensions between the Zionist movement and the British over various issues. During the War of Independence, it was the Soviet Union that helped Israel with military equipment. As the Cold War deepened, and especially with the outbreak of the Korean War (in 1950), Ben-Gurion, who was anti-communist, acted in various ways to return to the bosom of the West. Until the Sinai Campaign in 1956, Ben-Gurion relied mainly on Britain and France; but when he understood that their imperial power was weakening — among other things against the background of American opposition to the Suez operation — he labored to tighten the relationship with the United States, until after 1967 it became the principal power supporting Israel. One can of course regard the support of a world power as a means of creating deterrence against enemies, but it also assists the other components of security, such as decision (for example, through the supply of ammunition during a war) and early warning (for example, through intelligence assistance). I therefore believe that this support is so important that it should be seen as a security component in its own right.

Another component of Israel’s security effort, which may be called “separation,” was the forging of ties with various actors in the region that were in conflict with Israel’s direct enemies. Thus, for example, Israel wove ties with non-Arab states in the region, such as Turkey, Iran, and Ethiopia — a connection that began already in Ben-Gurion’s time and was then called the “periphery alliance.” In addition, Israel also wove ties with non-state actors, mainly non-Arab minorities such as the Christians in Lebanon, the Kurds in Iraq, the Christians in South Sudan, and others. This policy came to be known as the “alliance of minorities.” Most of these ties were unofficial, though some were at times institutionalized in formal alliances that did not last long. Although there is abundant evidence of these two policy components — support and separation — they did not stand out in public discourse, among other reasons because their execution was entrusted to clandestine bodies such as the Mossad.

The Broad Conflict and the Narrow Conflictהסכסוך הרחב והסכסוך הצר

The contribution of these five policy tools changed when the Israeli-Arab conflict changed its character. There is not space here to detail all the changes the conflict underwent, but the main one is the transition from a narrow conflict to a broad conflict, and then the return once again to the narrow conflict.

Until May 1948, the Jewish-Arab conflict was conducted between the two communities living in Mandatory Palestine. It was a conflict between militias, and its costs were therefore relatively low, both in human lives and in financing. The invasion of Israel by Arab armies in May 1948 widened the conflict and turned it into an interstate conflict, in which conventional armies fought — a fact that greatly increased the costs of the conflict.

The broad conflict escalated after the Six-Day War, when Israel insisted on remaining in the territories it had conquered. This led to the War of Attrition (1967-1970) and then to the Yom Kippur War, both of which exacted a high price in human lives: about 1,000 soldiers were killed in the War of Attrition, and 2,600 soldiers in the Yom Kippur War. On the economic plane, the damage was especially extensive. Defense spending rose from 7 percent of GDP before 1967 to an average of 25 percent between 1967 and 1980.

Moreover, the conflict entailed additional ancillary expenditures. Extensive reserve service badly harmed the business sector, which turned to the government for help; as a result, the government significantly increased its support for it, by subsidizing exporters and subsidizing business credit. The increase in costs, which was not accompanied by a sufficient rise in revenues, whether from taxes or from American aid, led to a deficit and to an increase in debt, which in turn sharply increased interest payments. Thus the escalation of the conflict after 1967 increased total public expenditure, meaning not only defense spending, from 30 percent of GDP before 1967 to 75 percent of GDP afterward, and caused a severe budgetary crisis and high inflation.

The broad conflict ended de facto with the signing and implementation of the peace agreement with Egypt in the years 1978-1982. For now, without Egypt, the Arab states could no longer form a coalition of conventional state armies capable of confronting Israel. The end of the broad conflict is reflected in the economic data as well. After the peace agreement, defense expenditures fell from about 25 percent of GDP to around 5 percent of GDP, and with them the additional expenditures connected to the broad conflict also declined, such as subsidies to the business sector and interest payments.

There is no vacuum in history, and the end of the broad conflict between Israel and the Arab states returned to center stage the narrow conflict between Israel and the Palestinians. The latter understood that the Arab states would no longer fight on their behalf, and this indirectly led to the outbreak of the First Intifada in December 1987. Since then, Israel has been conducting a narrow conflict whose direct costs are relatively low. The current war in Gaza, too, which included partial involvement by Hezbollah and the Houthis, is fundamentally a conflict against militias, whose direct economic cost is relatively low. As evidence, defense expenditures in 2024 rose only from 5 percent of GDP to 8 percent of GDP.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that although the direct costs of the narrow conflict are low, it is accompanied by very high indirect economic costs. These stem mainly from the damage to the economy’s growth potential caused by the absence of a solution to the conflict. For example, compulsory military service delays young people’s investment in education and professional experience, thereby significantly reducing the economy’s stock of human capital and its product. Shortening regular service to one year — something currently prevented by the security reality — could lead to a 4 percent increase in product and income. A much larger indirect cost is caused by the high risk to investors, which currently harms the accumulation of physical capital in Israel and therefore also product. Reducing this risk could contribute to increasing product and income in Israel by 26 percent. Together, these two effects amount to about 30 percent of GDP.

The Tools of Security Policy in the Narrow Conflictכלי מדיניות הביטחון בסכסוך הצר

The distinction between the broad conflict and the narrow conflict is important not only economically, but also for Israel’s security policy. The components of the security triangle were formulated in the era of the broad conflict and suited it; but within the framework of the narrow conflict, their effectiveness has greatly diminished.

The main tool that changed in the transition from a broad interstate conflict to a narrow militia conflict, which includes occupation, is deterrence. An independent state is very hesitant to go to war if its victory is not assured, because of the high cost of conventional war — from the political and economic prices of military defeat to heavy damage to infrastructure. In short, an established state has much to lose.

Yet even in the stage of the broad conflict there were cases in which Israel’s military power, and its signaling that it would not hesitate to use it, were insufficient to deter the other side. The most prominent of these is the Yom Kippur War: the Egyptians and Syrians launched a limited attack on Israeli-held territories, while prepared for military defeat, out of the understanding that this would help them set a diplomatic process in motion with the aim of recovering the territories taken from them in 1967. The lesson to be learned from this is that deterrence that relies only on the cost side of war cannot fulfill its purpose if the benefit for the other side that is inherent in war is not also taken into account. In this case, a diplomatic benefit was at stake, and the Egyptians ultimately reaped it.

If the demonstration of military power does not always deter states and conventional armies because the benefit side of the confrontation is absent, this is certainly so in the framework of the narrow conflict between us and the Palestinians. Even the most formidable military force has difficulty deterring a people without independence, suffering from prolonged occupation and oppression — chiefly because such a population does not have much to lose. This is true of the Palestinian people as a whole, and it is especially true of the residents of the Gaza Strip. The latter suffer from a continuing blockade, from extreme economic deterioration — average income in the Gaza Strip fell by half from the disengagement in 2005 to 2022 — and from severe military confrontations every few years. One may debate how far Hamas represents the Palestinian people and, in particular, the population of Gaza, but it is clear that if its alternative, the Palestinian Authority, is unable to obtain any political concession from Israel, this greatly strengthens support for Hamas.

It is therefore hard to deter militias that live among such a people, and they will rise up every few years. Even if the uprising absorbs painful blows, as happened for example to the Palestinians at the end of the Second Intifada, and even if a period of some calm follows it, it will eventually raise its head again. Those who believed that “Hamas is deterred” did not understand a basic concept in economics: cost-benefit analysis. First, life in Gaza was so hard and hopeless that the added cost of war did not seem so terrible. Second, the prolonged political paralysis into which the Palestinian people had fallen in the years before the war — years in which Arab states joined with Israel and the world forgot the Palestinians’ distress — was so terrible for them that they were prepared to support almost any step that might try to change this situation, however horrific it might be.

The Other Tools Have Also Been Worn Downגם הכלים האחרים נשחקו

The other components of the security doctrine also face new challenges in the era of the narrow conflict between us and the Palestinians. First, early warning is far more difficult, because tracking guerrilla organizations that hide among their people and do not possess the abundance of equipment, communications infrastructure, and permanent camps that a regular army has is much harder. An additional difficulty is caused by the dehumanization of the Palestinians that has taken root in Israel. The hearts of most Israelis are hardened to their suffering: they do not understand the difficulty involved in living under occupation, and especially under a tight blockade. As a result, they also do not understand the pressure exerted by the population on guerrilla organizations to act against the occupation. This flawed understanding in turn makes it harder to understand the Palestinians’ plans. Moreover, even if there are professionals in the intelligence system who do understand this, they will have difficulty bringing such warnings before the political system, which denies the very existence of the occupation. For these reasons, intelligence monitoring of the Palestinians fails again and again. In my view, this is the principal explanation for the failure to warn of Hamas’s attack on October 7.

Finally, the tool of decision also faces new difficulties in the era of the narrow conflict. During the period of the broad conflict it was an essential tool, attainable in war between conventional armies. Thus, for example, Israel defeated the armies of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan in 1967, and the armies of Egypt and Syria in 1973.

By contrast, it is very difficult to defeat a militia fighting a guerrilla war from within its people. A militia of this sort tends to hide among the people in which it operates, and it has no orderly infrastructure whose capture makes decision possible. Empires greater and older than we are tried this and failed, such as Britain in Kenya and in other African countries, and even here in Palestine; France in Algeria; and the United States in Vietnam and later in Afghanistan.

Israel, too, has failed at this: in Lebanon, in both intifadas, and in the continuing battles with Hamas in the current war in Gaza. Even a painful blow to a militia, such as the one Israel delivered toward the end of the Second Intifada in the West Bank, is almost always a temporary victory rather than a decision. It seems that Israel managed to defeat the Palestinians only once: when, in the first stage of the War of Independence, it pushed them out of most of the territory allotted to them by the Partition Plan. The removal of the civilian population from there paralyzed the activity of the Palestinian militias, which were in any case very weak.

Today, by contrast, it is far harder to expel the Palestinians, both because of world public opinion and because they have learned from past experience that flight will not improve their situation and therefore will not easily leave their land. We know this also from the experience of the current war: during 2024, the IDF tried to uproot the residents of the northern Gaza Strip and failed, as hundreds of thousands of them remained there until the ceasefire of January 2025. In mid-2025, a partial success in expelling people from Rafah appeared to be taking shape, made possible by the city’s total destruction; and yet Hamas forces seem to continue operating there despite the almost complete expulsion.

And what of the two additional policy tools, support and separation? There is no doubt that the political and military relationship between Israel and the United States has strengthened over recent decades, and it helps Israel greatly — in the present stage of the narrow conflict as well. But this relationship also constrains Israel, since it blocks the path to a political settlement with the Palestinians: the stronger Israel feels, the more, somewhat paradoxically, it finds it difficult to pay the territorial price required by such a settlement.

As for the policy of separation, it is evident that Israel’s involvement in conflicts in the region has increased, chiefly as a consequence of the alliance between it and some of the Sunni Gulf states, which are in conflict with Iran. Further examples are Israel’s intervention that contributed to the independence of South Sudan, and its support for Morocco in its conflict with Algeria over the continuation of its rule in Western Sahara. This strategy has had certain successes, such as the Abraham Accords, but the current war exposes its limitations, since public opinion in those countries, which strongly supports the Palestinian cause, prevents their leaders from tightening relations with Israel.

A New Policy Tool: Preventionכלי מדיניות חדש: מניעה

The report of the Meridor Committee, submitted in 2006 to the Olmert government by a committee headed by Dan Meridor that had been appointed to formulate a security doctrine for Israel, proposed adding a fourth component to the security triangle: defense. Although this was not stated explicitly, it echoed the difficulty encountered by the traditional triangle — deterrence, early warning, and decision — in the era of the narrow conflict. The defensive tool included protective measures, such as interception systems, among them the Arrow and Iron Dome systems, and improved defense of the home front.

Alongside this, the defensive tool also included offensive measures, such as attacks on nuclear facilities in hostile states in the region and attacks on the efforts of various militias threatening Israel to build up their strength. Thus, for example, Israel attacked Iranian elements in Syria during the civil war there in order to prevent Hezbollah’s strengthening; and thus it periodically attacked in Gaza in order to “mow the grass,” as the security establishment called it. At times, the military system called the component added by the Meridor Committee “prevention” rather than defense.

But accumulated experience proves that this policy tool, too, has significant limits. The development of interception systems in Israel is of course a great success story, but Israel’s attacks in Syria, Iran, Lebanon, and Gaza did not succeed in deterring its enemies, and certainly did not succeed in preventing the October 7 attack. It follows that prevention, too, is a limited tool within the framework of the narrow conflict.

This limitation is especially conspicuous against the background of the campaign Israel is conducting against attempts at nuclearization in the Middle East, in an effort to preserve its monopoly in the nuclear field. While these efforts succeeded in the cases of Iraq (in 1981) and Syria (in 2007), Israel has found it harder to achieve this against Iran. The different outcome stems from the differences between the countries. Iraq and Syria are less developed states, their ability to develop nuclear weapons is limited, and therefore the nuclear program they built was imported almost entirely from other countries.

Iran, by contrast, is a state with high capabilities, which developed its nuclear array by itself. Even according to the most optimistic reports, the latest Israeli-American attack will delay Iran’s nuclear project for a relatively short period, ranging from several months to two years. It is no accident that a far more significant success in delaying the project came following the nuclear agreement led by President Obama in 2015. It was signed for 15 years; in practice Trump withdrew from it in 2018.

The nuclear agreement (JCPOA) was successful because it took into account not only the possible cost for Iran, but also the benefit, embodied in the removal of the harsh sanctions imposed on it. This agreement illustrates well the poverty of thought in Israel, which takes only sticks into account and utterly ignores the very possibility of using carrots as well.

The Missing Tool of Security: Political Agreementsהכלי החסר לביטחון: הסדרים מדיניים

Interestingly, political agreements do not appear among the components of security in Israeli public discourse, despite their proven ability to strengthen security by reducing the motivation to fight. The failure of Israeli security thinking, which emphasizes the use of force, ignores the very possibility of bringing the other side to have a benefit from not going to war — not only because war’s costs are spared, but also because of the benefit inherent in preserving a political agreement and its fruits.

The most important example of the importance of political agreements is the peace agreement with Egypt. This is not a warm peace, because no agreement with the Palestinians has yet been reached, and hostility to Israel among the Egyptian public is therefore considerable. But it is a very stable agreement that has held for more than 40 years — with no wars, almost no Israeli and Egyptian casualties, and it even survived the period when the Muslim Brotherhood was in power (2012-2013). The stability of the agreement can be explained not only by Egypt’s fear of war, but also by the fact that it enabled Egypt to restore Sinai to its control — an achievement whose preservation is very important to it. Moreover, as we have shown, the agreement prevented war not only with Egypt, but also with other Arab states, which could no longer form a military coalition against Israel.

The political agreement required today, and in fact since the Partition Resolution of 1947, is with the Palestinians. According to the principles of the Arab Peace Plan of 2002 (“the Arab Initiative,” or “the Saudi Initiative”), it would ensure peace agreements between Israel and all the Arab states, with one exception: the need to settle the conflict with Syria in an agreement under which Israel would withdraw from the Golan Heights. Moves toward such an agreement began already in the interim agreements, the Oslo Accords, and even if the contacts for a permanent-status agreement were not completed at the time, its basic outline is well known to all sides. It includes the establishment of a Palestinian state in the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, based on the 1967 lines with limited mutual border adjustments that would leave some of the settlements in Israeli territory. The West Bank and the Strip would be linked by a land passage that would be in Israeli territory but under Palestinian administration. The division of Jerusalem would be based on the principle of Jewish neighborhoods for Israel and Arab neighborhoods for Palestine. The problem of the 1948 refugees would be solved mainly by rehabilitating the refugees and returning some of them to the State of Palestine, except for a small, symbolic number who would return to Israel. The Palestinian side accepted this outline, and there is also a broad international consensus around it.

Israel, by contrast, refused to accept this outline in all its contacts with the Palestinians. The sole exception was Ehud Olmert, during the negotiations he conducted with Mahmoud Abbas in 2008-2009. Unfortunately, the talks stopped when Olmert resigned in order to stand trial. Later it was also reported that his proposal did not have sufficient support in his government.

Since 2009, all Israeli governments — all but one of them headed by Netanyahu — have opposed an agreement with the Palestinians, and the very possibility of Palestinian independence. It is clear that this harms Israel’s security, since although a peace agreement with the Palestinians would entail the price of returning territories and evacuating settlements, it would enable the Palestinians to live in independence, accelerate their economic development, and end life under such an oppressive occupation. It would therefore reduce hostility, the desire for revenge, and the motivation to fight. It is hard to deny that this would make a very large contribution to security.

The Broader Questionהשאלה הרחבה יותר

The question of Israel’s security policy is only part of a broader question: how Israel can exist over time when it is a foreign implant in the Middle East. Ehud Barak, among others, hinted at this when he used the patronizing phrase “a villa in the jungle,” which reeks of a sense of Jewish superiority. Israel is a foreign implant in the Middle East for many reasons. First, of course, it differs from the other states of the region in its nationality and religion. Second, it has been supported by Western states, which have been perceived in the Middle East as a colonialist factor since 1917. Third, Israel is ruled by the descendants of immigrants from Eastern and Central Europe, who differ from the population living in the region.

It is true that about half of Israel’s population came to it from Arab or other Muslim countries, but in Israel massive social pressure was exerted on this group to detach itself from its Arab roots and even to deny them. In my opinion, this is one of the reasons why today there is, precisely among this group, greater opposition to reconciliation with the Arab world. Its members are torn between their origin and their desire to belong to the Israeli collective.

There has never been a meaningful public discussion in Israel of the question of how to integrate genuinely into the Middle East. The exclusive conception from the state’s earliest days holds that the central way to exist in the region is by force of arms, and by nothing else. In other words, only strong military power will prevent attempts to harm the Jewish state. It is no accident that Maj. Gen. (res.) Yaakov Amidror argued that Ben-Gurion of Mapai’s security policy in fact adopted the “Iron Wall” approach of the Revisionist Jabotinsky.

Only in two cases did Israel deviate from this approach: in signing the peace with Egypt, and in signing the Oslo agreement. In both cases, however, the deviation was relatively slight. In the peace agreement with Egypt, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, which was not of too great importance for it, since it was not part of “Greater Israel.” In the Oslo agreement, Israel agreed to Palestinian autonomy in the main cities, meaning only in a small part of the territories; the moment the need to relinquish significant territory came onto the table, even as part of the interim agreement that had already been signed and mandated further withdrawals from Area C, the process stopped, first under Netanyahu and later under Barak.

But it is not only the choice of the military path that harms Israel’s integration into the region. The political-military alliance with the United States harms it as well. This happens in many different ways, and I will illustrate it through one case, the Iranian one.

At a basic level, aside from one sort of bellicose rhetoric or another, Israel has no fundamental conflicts of interest with Iran. Until the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Israel cooperated with Iran on many matters. Why did the change of regime in Tehran cause relations between the two countries to deteriorate? First, because of the resentment felt by supporters of the Islamic revolution toward Israel, owing to its support for the shah’s tyrannical rule. But an even more important reason for the deterioration in relations was the confrontation between Iran and the United States.

This confrontation was not caused by religious reasons, but by the nationalism of the Iranian regime. The Iranians refused to forgive the Americans for the removal of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953. He was removed with the help of American forces after he refused to reverse the nationalization of Iranian oil. In time, the Iranian regime that arose after the shah’s overthrow decided to keep the country outside the American sphere of influence, which greatly intensified the confrontation between the two countries. And since Israel is the Americans’ principal ally in the region, the Iranians are in conflict with it as well. Thus, while the United States became in their eyes the “Great Satan,” Israel became the “Little Satan” — only a secondary hostile factor.

The firm American opposition to the Shiite regime that arose in Iran after the revolution is also connected to the fact that, by its very existence, it threatened the states of the Persian Gulf. These latter states were, and still are, ruled by Sunni regimes, but they contain large Shiite minorities that are politically and economically deprived. The Shiite regime in Iran threatens to stir these minorities. The Gulf states therefore supported the war Iraq declared on Iran (1980-1988), and even helped finance it. And since the United States is the patron of the Gulf states, this is another reason for its stance against the Iranian regime, for the sanctions it has imposed on it over the years, and even for its military attacks against it: the assassination of Qassem Soleimani in 2020 and the latest attack on the nuclear sites, alongside, apparently, covert attacks.

To a large extent, Israel’s confrontational positioning against Iran was intended to serve the American interest in the region. Over the years, however, it became clear that Israel benefits from the confrontation with Iran in another way: since the Gulf states support the Israeli side in the confrontation, because it weakens Iran, their support for the Palestinians has become less enthusiastic. As evidence, there is their signing of the Abraham Accords, which was not made conditional on significant progress in negotiations with the Palestinians.

Thus, the Iranian example illustrates how the alliance with the Americans binds Israeli foreign policy to interests not its own. Under the cloak of security, Israel finds itself again and again in a position of confrontation that prevents it from achieving genuine regional integration.

* * ** * *

Israel’s choice to exist in the Middle East chiefly by force of arms is leading it into a dead end. One of the fundamental qualities of military confrontations is that they grow ever more severe, and their costs increase over time, because of the intensification of anger, hatred, and the desire for revenge. In the First Intifada, 160 Israelis were killed; in the Second Intifada, 1,000 Israelis. In the present confrontation, almost 2,000 Israelis have been killed and murdered. Of course, the numbers of Palestinians killed and murdered also grow from confrontation to confrontation.

The economic damage, too, grows from round to round, among other reasons because it is becoming clear that the level of risk in business investment in Israel is steadily increasing. Continuing to live by the sword threatens to make it harder and harder for Israel to exist as an ordinary Western state. Already in the present war, Israel has become a pariah state for most of the world because of its rampage in Gaza and the scale of the killing and destruction it has sown.

What, then, is the alternative to life by the sword? How can one integrate into the Middle East in another way? The answer cannot be reduced to banal steps such as requiring the study of Arabic, or to symbolic gestures such as listening to Umm Kulthum — though these in themselves can certainly help and even reward. Nor is there any need to become anti-American, but one must remember that the interests of the United States do not always coincide with those of Israel. We live in the Middle East and our fate is bound up with it, while the Americans are very far from it; it is therefore important that we find more pathways to the hearts of its inhabitants.

The main answer to the difficulty is that political agreements must be reached that will neutralize at least some of the hatred and anger toward Israel. Then we will be able to create more balanced and better relations between the sides, after so many years of conflict. These relations will in turn provide an incentive to develop the political agreements further into genuine relations of peace. Of course, even if Israel integrates into the Middle East, it will still need to maintain significant military power, but it will have to use it only for genuine defensive needs, and not in order to expand the reach of its control and influence in the region, as it does today.

About Prof. Yosef Zeiraעל פרופ' יוסף זעירא

Emeritus professor of economics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is a macroeconomist who specializes, among other things, in the study of the economic aspects of the Israeli-Arab conflict. Author of the book The Israeli Economy.

Y done · S save · G great · B bad · N not for me