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Iran and Its Arab-Islamic Neighborhood

The war has exposed a deep fracture between Iran and its Arab-Islamic neighborhood, forcing both sides to choose between a regional order built on cooperation and one governed by coercion and strategic uncertainty.

غداة الحرب على إيران: فرصة تشكيل نظام إقليمي جديد
مركز الجزيرة للدراسات · 14 May 2026 · read the original in Arabic →

أخفقت الحرب الأميركية/الإسرائيلية على إيران حتى الآن في تحقيق هدفها الرئيس: إسقاط النظام الإيراني أو تغييره وتطويعه للإرادة الأميركية. ولأن الحرب على إيران لم تكن سوى حلقة جديدة من الحرب الإسرائيلية على جوار إسرائيل العربي-الإسلامي؛ فقد أخفقت أيضًا في فرض الهيمنة الإسرائيلية على الشرق الأوسط. ولكن هذا لا يعني أن الحرب على إيران لم تُوقِع تغييرات ملموسة في إيران، في رؤية القيادة الإيرانية الإستراتيجية للذات والموقع والجوار. هذه هي المرة الأولى منذ الحرب العراقية-الإيرانية التي تتعرض فيها إيران لمثل هذه الحرب الشديدة. وهذه هي المرة الأولى التي تخوض فيها إيران حربًا تصل إلى كافة دول جوارها العربي.

The American-Israeli war against Iran has so far failed to achieve its principal aim: the overthrow or transformation of the Iranian regime and its subordination to the American will. And because the war on Iran was only a new episode in Israel’s war on Israel’s Arab-Islamic neighborhood, it has also failed to impose Israeli hegemony over the Middle East. Yet this does not mean that the war on Iran has not produced tangible changes inside Iran, in the Iranian leadership’s strategic view of itself, its position, and its neighborhood. This is the first time since the Iran-Iraq War that Iran has been subjected to a war of such intensity. And this is the first time Iran has fought a war that reaches all the countries of its Arab neighborhood.

ربطت إيران، منذ ولادة كيانها في أوائل القرن السادس عشر، وحتى قبل أن يطلق عليها رضا بهلوي اسم إيران في ثلاثينات القرن العشرين، علاقات بالغة التعقيد والتوتر مع جوارها العربي والإسلامي. وظلت هذه العلاقات تتقلب بين أطوار من الحرب والصدام، وأخرى من المعاهدة والتعاون والتبادل. إلا أن إيران لم تخض حربًا مع أيٍّ من دول الجوار منذ الترسيم النهائي لحدودها مع الجوار العثماني، في 1914، وولادة الدولة القومية، إلا الحرب العراقية-الإيرانية، التي بدأها الهجوم العراقي، في 20 سبتمبر/أيلول 1980، حسب تقرير لجنة التحقيق الأممية.

From the birth of its polity in the early sixteenth century, and even before Reza Pahlavi gave it the name Iran in the 1930s, Iran has had relations of extreme complexity and tension with its Arab and Islamic neighborhood. These relations have continued to oscillate between phases of war and confrontation and others of treaty, cooperation, and exchange. Yet Iran has not fought a war with any of its neighbors since the final demarcation of its borders with the Ottoman neighborhood in 1914 and the birth of the nation-state, except for the Iran-Iraq War, which began with the Iraqi attack on September 20, 1980, according to the report of the UN commission of inquiry.

Since the beginning of the American-Israeli war, however, Iran has directed its missiles and drones at various targets in the Gulf states, in Jordan, in Iraqi Kurdistan, and even in Turkey. Iran’s regional arms in Iraq and Lebanon also moved quickly to support the Iranian war effort and take part in it, independently of the governments of the two states. Because the Iranian attacks on the Arab-Islamic neighborhood began directly, only hours after the American-Israeli attacks started, it appeared as though the target bank in the Gulf states and Iraq had been agreed upon and approved by the Iranian leadership long before the fires of war broke out.

In general, the Iranian attacks, or the movements of pro-Iranian forces in Iraq and Lebanon, generated a sense that Iran’s policy toward its Arab-Islamic neighborhood, which had tended to acquire an ever greater measure of military intervention since the American invasion of Iraq in 2003, had moved into a new phase of armed intervention. Iran no longer views its Arab neighborhood solely through the prism of the strategic necessities of a nation-state, but also as an arena for hegemony and for use in confrontation with its major adversaries.

Have the tendencies of armed penetration, then, become permanent features of Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood, or will the enormous effects of the war push both the Iranian regime and the neighboring states to rebuild these relations on foundations of cooperation and mutual respect?

Iran’s Difference and Singularityاختلاف إيران وتفردها

Iran has posed a multifaceted problem for its Arab and Islamic neighborhood since the early Safavid period. The Safavids descended from a Turkic tribal background, and thus tried to use their relations with the Turkic tribes of Ottoman Anatolia to expand westward. Because the Safavid dynasty had embraced Shiism, it led a violent campaign to convert Iran’s population, in all its ethnic diversity, to Shiism. Missionary Shiite impulses and imperial ambitions soon unleashed a Safavid movement of expansion toward Iraq in the south, the lands of the Afghans and India in the east, and Armenia and the Caucasus in the north. Iran’s situation did not differ greatly under Nader Shah Afshar, after the fall of the Safavids in the early eighteenth century, or during the Qajar period from the late eighteenth century onward. The difference lay in the steady imperial retreat imposed by confrontations with the various powers of the neighborhood: the Ottomans, the Afghan tribes, and Tsarist Russia.

The borders of the Iran whose throne Reza Pahlavi ascended in 1925 had receded from the expansive space it had occupied over previous centuries to its present limits. But Pahlavi Iran still embraced a broad ethnic and sectarian plurality, which Reza the Great, who came from a Mazandarani background rather than a purely Persian one, tried to unify within a new nationalist conception and subject to the authority of a modern centralized state. Reza Pahlavi, who came to power through a military coup, was preoccupied in the early years of his rule with affirming the legitimacy of his authority and that of his family. When he began his modernization project, he found himself in conflict with the Shiite clerical class, which had acquired immense social weight during the Safavid and Qajar periods. This may be what made the domestic sphere the focus of his attention.

Reza Pahlavi understood from the beginning that he had inherited a multi-sectarian and multiethnic state, and that the country’s stability and rise could not be achieved without finding a framework capable of encompassing this plurality. Deeply influenced by the experience of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in neighboring Turkey, and by what appeared to be Ataturk’s success in unifying the peoples of the newborn republic within a framework of Turkish nationalism, Reza Pahlavi fashioned the myth of the Aryan origin of the Iranian peoples and their difference from their Semitic Arab neighbors. He then presented Iranian nationalism as the encompassing framework for the various groups among his state’s citizens. Perhaps the making of Iranian national identity was one of Reza Pahlavi’s greatest achievements, an identity that remained alive and active even after the Allies removed him in 1941 because of his sympathy for and alignment with Nazi Germany.

Mohammad Reza was still a young man when he assumed power under British sponsorship after his father went into exile, and at first he had to work anew to consolidate the foundations of the regime and of authority. But the son soon faced a challenge to his rule when Mohammad Mosaddegh became prime minister in 1951 and ignited a major struggle by announcing the nationalization of the oil industry, which had been under the complete control of British oil companies. In a moment of severe tension, the young shah was forced to leave the country, but American intelligence soon led a broad coup movement that resulted in Mosaddegh’s overthrow and the young shah’s return to his throne in 1953.

Mosaddegh’s short-lived government, with its emancipatory economic orientation, was counted, alongside the Turkish War of Independence, among the first national liberation movements in the Third World. More important, Mosaddegh’s movement, despite its fatal clash with the shah’s regime, was also an indication that Iranian nationalism had been born to endure, and that even the shah’s regime would not be able to continue without it.

But national identity was not the only difference between modern Iran and the various other nation-states in its regional surroundings, Arab and non-Arab alike. Nor did Iranian identity acquire a Shiite character until after the victory of the Islamic Revolution and the overthrow of the shah’s regime. Iran had, of course, become a Shiite-majority state as a result first of the coercive Safavid campaign of Shiitization, and then after it was compelled, in the nineteenth century, to relinquish most of the Kurdish region in the west and all its possessions in the southern Caucasus. But Shiite identity did not assume its settled place in the ideology of the state until after the victory of the Islamic Revolution.

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the shah’s regime faced forces opposed to his rule from every background: liberal, nationalist, and leftist. But Ayatollah Khomeini was the only one able to lead a resounding popular movement, the like of which the world had not seen since the French and Russian revolutions, and which ended by uprooting the shah’s regime and establishing an Islamic republican order in 1979.

From the time he emerged in the arena of opposition to the shah’s rule in the mid-1960s, Khomeini waged a struggle within the Shiite scholarly class over the thesis of wilayat al-faqih, the guardianship of the jurist, which established the legitimacy of the authority of the jurist-guardian throughout the occultation of the Imam. But the principle of guardianship did not triumph until after the birth of the Islamic Republic, which made it its ideological foundation. With the victory of wilayat al-faqih, the Islamic Republic of Iran began to present itself as the authoritative leader of all Shiite Muslims, religiously and politically, inside Iran and beyond it. And because Shiite Islam is, in its formative nature, a missionary Islam, the principle of wilayat al-faqih strengthened the missionary drive of the clerics who believed in it and of the Islamic Republic alike. Thus, from the 1980s onward, Iranian difference and singularity became armed with the force of both national distinction and Shiite identity.

A Legacy of Tangled Relationsميراث من العلاقات الشائكة

The borders of twentieth-century Iran were drawn by centuries of wars with the powers of the neighborhood, Ottoman, Afghan, and Russian; this imposed on modern Iran strategic necessities it had not chosen. Iran emerged as a nation-state amid different, rising, and highly vital nationalisms; a Shiite-majority state in a surrounding Islamic Sunni majority; a state distant from the Mediterranean gateway to the Western world, which had become the center of the entire world; a state compelled to share with others control over its only maritime outlet in the Gulf; and a state living in sustained fear of the relations between its various ethnic communities and neighboring nationalities.

This is what caused tension in modern Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood in particular, both under the shah and under the Islamic Republic. These relations soon grew more strained, first because of the reinforcement of the Shiite ideological and revolutionary dimension of the Islamic Republic, and second because of the fears of neighboring states and the recourse of most of them to the protective umbrella of Western powers, especially the United States.

No sooner did the shah’s regime feel secure in the 1960s than it began to move beyond the country’s borders to deal with Iran’s strategic necessities, on the one hand, or to answer latent imperial ambitions, on the other. The Iran of the shah took part in Western alliance systems to confront the Soviet threat during the Cold War years, and the threat of the Nasserist Arab nationalist movement, which was considered both an ally of the Soviets and a source of national threat. It was not strange that the shah’s regime participated in the Yemeni civil war against the Egyptian military presence after Abdullah al-Sallal’s coup in 1962. The shah also worked to build close, if unofficial, relations with the State of Israel; he did not hesitate to use these relations against neighboring Arab nationalist regimes, or to work together with Israel to support the Iraqi Kurdish rebellion.

Although the shah’s modernizing inclinations placed him, like his father, in conflict with the Shiite clerical class, his regime never ceased trying to build alliance relations with some clerics who showed a willingness to cooperate, and to employ them in the service of the regime’s aims. The shah’s regime maintained close ties with the Shiite authority Mohsen al-Hakim in Iraq, and continued to brandish him in the face of successive Iraqi governments. It also stood behind Musa al-Sadr’s move to Lebanon and the founding of the Supreme Shiite Council in 1969.

In November 1971, before the British withdrawal from the Trucial States that became the United Arab Emirates, and with British approval, the shah’s Iran took control of Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb, which belonged to Ras al-Khaimah, and of Abu Musa, which belonged to Sharjah. Iran did not conceal its ambitions to control Bahrain. Nor did the shah’s regime hesitate, during the years when the conflict with Iraq over sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab erupted, to provide support to the armed Kurdish separatist movement in northern Iraq. Iranian support for the Kurdish separatists stopped only after Iraq conceded the northern side of the Shatt al-Arab in the Algiers Agreement of 1975.

In 1979, although most Arab states welcomed the victory of the Iranian people’s revolution, the republic’s revolutionary Shiite identity, on the one hand, and the stark contrast between the Islamic Republic’s anti-Western tendency and the relations of neighboring Arab states with Western powers, on the other, foretold an anxious future for Arab-Iranian relations. In the autumn of 1980, even before the Islamic Republic’s situation had stabilized, Iraq began a long and bitter war against Iran, justifying its move by the danger Iran had come to represent to Iraq’s internal situation, especially in terms of mobilizing its Shiite political arms against Baghdad. It was clear that all the Arab states of the Mashriq, except for the Assad regime in Syria, chose to stand alongside Iraq, themselves driven by similar fears of the Iranian threat.

The war lasted eight years, and did not end in August 1988 until Iran concluded that it could no longer continue in the face of the American alignment with Iraq. The war claimed roughly a million Iranian and Iraqi victims, and caused enormous destruction in southern Iran, southern Iraq, and Iraq’s Kurdish region. It also witnessed Iran’s first attempts to control navigation through the Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. Because the war broke out when the Islamic Republic was still in its infancy, because it inflamed Iran’s internal divisions, and because it saw broad Arab and Western support for Iraq, a belief was born in Iran that the war had targeted the very existence of the republic. This produced something like a strategic consensus in Tehran that the Islamic Republic must never again allow its conflicts to be fought on its own soil.

This principle, the principle of always fighting battles for influence on the territory of others, is what underpinned all of Iran’s regional policies from the end of the war with Iraq until the outbreak of the American-Israeli war in late February.

During the decade of reconstruction in the 1990s, Iran worked to calm its relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood. But as soon as it found an opportunity to intervene in order to recover its regional influence, or to settle accounts with actual or potential adversaries, it rushed with all its force to affirm its position and its role. Iran worked to turn Hezbollah in Lebanon into a major force, not only in confronting the Israelis but also in controlling the decision of the Lebanese state. As soon as it found an opportunity to intervene in Afghanistan, it extended a helping hand to the Americans in overthrowing the Taliban regime in 2001. After the American occupation of Iraq, Iran made every possible effort to strengthen its influence in Baghdad, indeed to control the decision of the new Iraqi state.

When it appeared that the Arab revolutionary movement threatened the regime of its allies in Syria, Iran dispatched Revolutionary Guard forces and the armed factions of many different Shiite forces to inflict defeat on the Syrian people. It also provided every possible form of support to help Nouri al-Maliki’s government defeat the popular movement in Iraq’s Sunni-majority provinces. And no sooner had the Houthi forces in Yemen, which had close relations with Iran, succeeded in overturning the democratic process than Iran stepped forward to provide every possible support to consolidate Houthi control over the country, and even to threaten the Arab Gulf neighborhood.

In most of these cases, Tehran believed it was engaged in a struggle against the United States and its Arab allies, and against the Israelis, and that by waging this struggle on the lands of Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen, it was in fact acting to protect itself and its people, and to protect the order of wilayat al-faqih. This is perhaps what laid the ground for the principle of responding to any future American or Israeli attack not only by targeting American and Israeli interests, but also the interests of the United States’ allies in the Gulf neighborhood.

On the other side, especially in the Arab Gulf states, the Iran-Iraq War reinforced the tendency to seek refuge under the Western protective umbrella, a tendency whose first steps had begun, with much hesitation, in the 1950s and 1960s, not against Iran but in partnership with Iran under the shah against the danger of communist expansion or the Arab nationalist tide led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. The inclination to seek protection from Western powers soon became more firmly established after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, not against Iran but in confronting Iraq under Saddam Hussein.

It was therefore not strange that Iran, during the forty days of the American-Israeli war, from February 28 to April 8, and even afterward, targeted almost all the states of its Arab neighborhood relentlessly. Even Turkey, which modern Iran has long avoided antagonizing, was targeted at least twice, whether for purposes of threat or to send a message of readiness for confrontation. Iran’s closing of the Strait of Hormuz and declaration of sovereignty over it was also, at its core, an act hostile to the Arab states bordering the Gulf, which were wholly or almost wholly deprived of exporting oil and gas, or importing their necessary needs, through the strait, before it was an instrument of pressure on the global economy.

Iran says its attacks on the Gulf states and Jordan targeted centers of American military presence or Israeli intelligence. It also says that the United Arab Emirates participated directly in bombing Iranian sites in early April, and supported the American attacks on Iran’s Gulf ports on May 7 and 8, when clashes over the Strait of Hormuz resumed between the Iranians and the Americans. But the Iranian attacks also targeted oil and gas production and export sites, and in some cases power-generation sites, residences, and hotels. These attacks began before Iran accused the Emirates of participating in the war.

In states such as Iraq and Lebanon, Iran acted as though it were an essential partner in the national decision, with little regard for the ruling systems of the two states. In Iraq, Iran used the armed Shiite factions loyal to it to bomb and threaten sites of American presence inside Iraq, American positions in Kuwait, or gathering centers and headquarters of Iranian Kurdish opposition groups in Iraqi Kurdistan. In Lebanon, Hezbollah was pushed, or incited, to open the Lebanese front with Israel in support of the Iranian war effort, leading to a deep Israeli incursion into southern Lebanon and the destruction of entire Lebanese neighborhoods, villages, and towns in the south and in Beirut’s southern suburb.

In one way or another, despite a long legacy of tension and contention, the recent war revealed a break in Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood that will be difficult to mend by returning to prewar conditions.

A Future of Cooperation or the Loss of Certaintyمستقبل من التعاون أو فقدان اليقين

It is not clear how the war might end, or even whether the confrontation between Iran, on the one side, and America and Israel, on the other, will turn into a protracted confrontation, albeit at a low tempo and below the level of high-intensity war. What is clear, however, is that all the states of the Mashriq, including Iran, hope this confrontation will end quickly, and that it will end in an agreement that addresses the fears that have weighed on Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood since the American-Israeli attack on Iran began and Iran began its broad response to it.

It is noticeable that a debate took place in Iran about its relations with its neighborhood even before the war ended. Perhaps the attempts by the Iranian president, Masoud Pezeshkian, and his foreign minister, Abbas Araghchi, to minimize the significance of the attacks on the Gulf states and to emphasize the fraternal relations between Iran and its neighbors were one manifestation of this debate. The problem is that this debate may take Iran in one of two wholly contradictory directions. There are those in Iran who say that the permanent facts of geography, the Islamic and cultural bonds and ethnic intermingling, and the relatively limited effect of the attacks on the states of the Arab-Islamic neighborhood call for repairing relations with all the states of the regional environment. By contrast, there are those who say that standing firm in the face of the greatest war to which any state in the Mashriq has been subjected in at least a century means that the states of the region must acknowledge Iran’s role and position, and accordingly submit to the Iranian will and Iranian demands.

On the other side, Iran has never faced a united front, neither during the weeks of war nor before them. There was, for example, an implicit consensus between Iran and all the Gulf states on expelling Iraq from Kuwait in 1990-1991. The American war on Iraq in 2003 likewise saw Iran and a number of Gulf states support the overthrow of the Iraqi regime. Even at the sharpest moments of Iranian contention with Turkey in Syria, and with Saudi Arabia in Yemen, Iran’s relations with Qatar and Oman remained normal, at least. In the past few months, Qatar and Oman played an active mediating role to prevent the outbreak of war and to end it after it began. Saudi Arabia, which saw the escalation of the conflict between Iran and the Gulf states as in fact an Israeli demand, as former Saudi intelligence chief Turki al-Faisal wrote in Asharq Al-Awsat on May 9, refrained from joining the response to the Iranian attacks by participating in the war.

But it is difficult to achieve a tangible accomplishment in dealing with the problems of Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood by limiting oneself to linking these problems to the consequences of the recent war, or by imagining that one can succeed in building a climate of peace and cooperation in the Mashriq simply by strengthening tendencies to contain the war’s consequences.

The common explanation for the long legacy of tension between Iran and its Arab-Islamic neighborhood, and for the recent escalation in attacks on the states of that neighborhood, centers on Turkey’s and most Arab states’ alliance relations with the United States, which is considered Iran’s principal enemy. But it is clear that the American role does not provide an adequate explanation for the question of Iran and its neighborhood. First, because Iranian action in the Gulf neighborhood, and against the Nasserist axis and Baathist Iraq, began when Iran was in close alliance with the United States and was indeed considered the pillar of American policy in the Middle East. Second, because relations between Islamic Iran and the United States have not always been marked by enmity and hostility. During the Iran-Iraq War, Iran obtained American weapons, albeit illegally. Iran also extended a helping hand to the United States in the invasion of Afghanistan, and did not hesitate to push its allies among the Iraqi opposition forces to endorse and support the American invasion of Iraq.

The contradictory relations of the states of the Mashriq with the great powers have contributed to the outbreak of conflicts among the region’s states, and the evidence for this is abundant. These contradictions are manifestations of a deeper flaw in the relations of these states with one another, and in Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood in particular. What is clear is that modern Iran emerged as an entity different and distinct from its neighborhood, nationally, culturally, and sectarianly, and that this difference and distinction turned into waves of offensive impulses when they intersected with Iran’s strategic necessities.

This calls for a reconsideration of relations among the states of the Mashriq, and of Iran’s relations with its Arab-Islamic neighborhood, one broader and more far-reaching than the circumstances of the recent war on Iran and the consequences and aggravations of that war. There is a need for a different vision of the changes in the international order, and for a more balanced assessment of the power of the United States and of the negative and positive aspects of its role in the Mashriq and its questions. What has been confirmed by the two and a half years of successive wars since the war on Gaza in 2023 is that the United States, regardless of the administration leading the White House, places its alliance with Israel above its relations with the rest of its allies in the region. The United States, despite the enormous military arsenal it maintains, has also been unable, or unwilling, to protect the region’s states from Iranian attacks.

There is also an equally urgent need for Iran to rethink its conception of itself, of its position in the Arab-Islamic Mashriq, and of its relations with the states of its regional neighborhood. What unites Iran with this neighborhood is greater, deeper, and more consequential than what divides it. There are no strategic concerns or fears that cannot be agreed upon regionally without recourse to military intervention and hegemony. In the calculations of sheer power, it is unlikely that Iran would emerge victorious, however powerful it became, in a long conflict with its neighbors. This may be indicated by what happened in Syria, where its military presence did not prevent the fall of the regime of its ally, Bashar al-Assad.

The need has become clear for the formation of a regional political-security order for the states of the Mashriq, one that excludes none of its constituent parties, and in which no state pursues a policy that drives the other members to exclude it from participation in the arrangements of the new regional order.

Y done · S save · G great · B bad · N not for me