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Contemporary Qur'anology: Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd and the Concept and Nature of the Qur'an

The essay argues that Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd’s linguistic, historical, and literary reading of the Qur'an does not abolish its sanctity, but seeks to recover its meaning from ideological closure by understanding it as a text formed within culture and active in forming it.

القرآنولوجيا المعاصرة: نصر حامد أبو زيد ومفهوم القرآن وطبيعته
Mominoun Without Borders · 1 January 2026 · read the original in Arabic →

القرآنولوجيا المعاصرة:

Contemporary Qur'anology:

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd and the Concept and Nature of the Qur'an: An Introductionنصر حامد أبو زيد ومفهوم القرآن وطبيعته تمهيد

القرآنُ ــــ في اعتقاد المسلمين ــــ وحيٌ إلهيٌّ، وهو معطى أوليّ وجوهريّ في بنية العقل الإسلامي، وأيُّ صياغة جديدة لمعنى الحياة لابد، حسب هذا الاعتقاد، أنْ ترتكز على هذه البؤرة المركزية المُنتجة للمعنى. وإنّ الاجتهاد في تأويل دِلالات القرآن ومقاصده ضرورة عملية يقتضيها الواقع المتحرك والمتغير للمجتمعات الإسلامية. وقد كان الاجتهادُ عاملا من عوامل الإبداع والحيوية والاختلاف في الفكر الإسلامي الكلاسيكي، وفُهمت التأويلات المتعددة والمتنوعة على أنها دلالة قوية على الثراء الدلالي للقرآن؛ وهكذا ففهم القرآن وتأويله: "مهمة مطروحة في كل وقت ومطلوبة في كل زمان، وقد يكفي التذكير بأنّ اقتناعنا بأن القرآن يخاطب أهل كل زمان ومكان، يفرض علينا اكتساب فهم متجدد للقرآن بتجدد الأحوال في كل عصر.."(1).

The Qur'an, in Muslim belief, is divine revelation; it is a primary and essential datum in the structure of the Islamic mind. Any new formulation of the meaning of life must, according to this belief, be grounded in this central focus that produces meaning. Ijtihad in interpreting the indications and purposes of the Qur'an is a practical necessity demanded by the dynamic and changing reality of Islamic societies. Ijtihad was one of the factors of creativity, vitality, and difference in classical Islamic thought, and multiple and varied interpretations were understood as a strong sign of the Qur'an's semantic richness. Thus understanding and interpreting the Qur'an is “a task posed at every time and required in every age. It may suffice to recall that our conviction that the Qur'an addresses the people of every time and place obliges us to acquire a renewed understanding of the Qur'an as circumstances are renewed in every age...” (1).

1. Conceptual Delimitations1 ــ تحديدات مفهومية

The concept of the “text” is one whose definitions vary according to the fields of knowledge that employ it in constructing their theoretical edifice and analytical models. Muhammad Miftah (2) extracted the most important constituents of the text from its definitions within structuralism, the sociology of literature, semantic psychoanalysis, and discourse analysis. The sum of these constituents is that the text is a verbal corpus; that it is an event; that it is communicative, interactive, closed, and generative; that is, it is the corpus of a verbal event with multiple functions. Yet this synthetic definition is governed by the written linguistic sign (3), and does not include other systems of signification centered on the non-linguistic sign. In the field of semiology, the concept of the “text” widens to include every system of linguistic and non-linguistic signs that leads to the production of an overall meaning. Under this definition fall linguistic texts and discourses, and non-linguistic ones such as images, bodily gestures, celebrations, rites, rituals, garments, the dining table, and so forth. It is also “a series of relations that produces an overall meaning bearing a message. Whether those signs are signs in natural language, namely words, or signs in other languages, the organization of signs into a system that bears a message makes them a text” (4). The text is an independent structure in itself that includes the author, intention, and implied reader, and does not exclude the linguistic and cultural context. The author has a particular intention in composing and publishing the text, and his intentionality operates only within the linguistic and cultural space to which he belongs; it also requires imagining a particular recipient for the text. In addition, it includes the meaning of “intertextuality”: no text arises from a complete void, and intertextuality means that the text has relations and interactions with texts that preceded it.

In the field of religious discourse analysis, one must distinguish between the “primary text” and the “secondary text.” In the Islamic case, the Qur'an is the primary text, the first event in a system that emanated from it and accumulated around it. The secondary texts are the Prophet's Sunna, which constitutes an explanation and clarification of the Qur'an; after it come the efforts of theologians, jurists, and exegetes, which are commentaries and glosses “either on the first primary text or on the second, secondary text” (5). One must also distinguish between “religion” and “religious thought.” Religion is the texts whose divine source and sanctity the culture has acknowledged, whereas religious thought is the totality of human efforts that seek to understand those texts, interpret them, and infer their indications and intentions. These efforts cannot be separated from the laws that govern the movement of human thought in general; they are nothing but human discourses about religion, that is, “a human effort to give intellectual form to the givens of revelation. It is an intellectual betrayal of the principles of scientific analysis to imagine that these human intellectual efforts were accomplished in isolation from the historical and social circumstances of the societies, groups, or persons who accomplished them” (6).

The search for the concept of the Qur'anic text is an attempt to discover its social and cultural nature, that is, insofar as it is the center of Islamic culture, and an excavation of the dialectical relation between it and Arab culture in terms of its being formed by that culture and forming it in turn. Its transcendent divine source does not mean removing it from the field of study and scientific examination. For the fact that “the discourse is divine in terms of source does not mean that it cannot be analyzed as a divine discourse embodied in human language with all the problematics of its social, cultural, and historical context” (7). As for insistence on its separate divine nature, that would mean that we, with our minds and forms of knowledge, are incapable of understanding it; it would thereby become an impenetrable text, a divine cipher decipherable only by a divine power, making it seem as though God were speaking to, and communing with, Himself. The Qur'an would then lose the attributes of message, communication, guidance, and light.

Reading the Qur'anic text requires methodological and intellectual strategies, the most important of which is linking the unseen to the human. This linkage requires the creation of a scientific reading aimed at divesting it of myth, that is, humanizing and secularizing its reading. This process rests on the principle of “linguistic homology” between the Qur'anic text and human texts. Abu Zayd says: “Religious texts, in the final analysis, are nothing but linguistic texts; that is, they belong to a specific cultural structure and were produced according to the laws of that culture, whose central semantic system is language” (8). Thus the religious text is brought down from its absolute transcendent status into the relative sociohistorical space within which it was formed. To demonstrate the credibility of his thesis, Abu Zayd draws a comparison between the Qur'an and Jesus son of Mary, saying: “The comparison between the Qur'an and the Lord Christ in terms of the nature of the descent of the first and the nature of the birth of the second reveals aspects of resemblance between the religious structure of each within the doctrinal construction of Islam itself. Perhaps we would not be exaggerating if we said that they are not two structures, but one structure, despite the difference in the elements composing each of them: the Qur'an is the Word of God, and likewise Jesus, peace be upon him, is the Messenger of God and His Word” (9). So long as Muslims deny divine status to the Prophet Jesus and affirm his human status, they are obliged, by the same token, to affirm the human nature of the Qur'an, because it was embodied in a human language subject to the constraints of culture in all its manifestations. If we look at the Qur'an as a “cultural product” formed in “reality and culture,” then we possess the scientific entry point for studying it, because reality represents and reflects the concrete truth from which we begin. In addition, it contains economic, social, political, and cultural structures, and includes the first recipient of the text, its transmitter, and those addressed by it.

2. The Nature of the Qur'an: A. The Qur'an as a Linguistic-Cultural Text2 ـــ طبيعة القرآن أ ــ القرآن نص لغوي ــ ثقافي

The Qur'an is a linguistic text that represents “a pivotal text in the history of Arab culture” (10); for this reason Abu Zayd describes Islamic civilization as a “civilization of the text.” The linguistic nature of this text demands that it be approached through its phonetic, syntactic, lexical, semantic, and pragmatic levels, and through its relation to other religious and literary texts, that is, intertextuality. It may be said, however, that it is “a special text, and its specificity derives from its sanctity and the divinity of its source; nevertheless, it remains a linguistic text belonging to a particular culture” (11). It derives its distinctive textual properties primarily from sociocultural facts. Sacred “divine” speech concerns us only from the moment it was humanly objectified, which in our estimation is the moment Muhammad uttered it in the Arabic language (12). Religious texts, then, are nothing but linguistic texts produced according to the laws of the culture whose central semantic system is language. If culture is the worldview of a particular human group, then language “is the system that expresses this worldview. It therefore does not represent a single-level system; rather, its levels multiply according to the levels of the culture it expresses” (13). From here arises the dialectical relation between culture and language/text, a relation that can only be understood through the linguistic approach. To regard language as a system or structure of signs means that it reshapes the world symbolically: it transforms material elements and mental conceptions into signs and symbols. Understanding culture, which is a conception of the world, can be achieved only by understanding the language that symbolizes it, that is, the instrument that reflects culture and its levels. Moreover, understanding the text can take place only through understanding the culture to which it belongs. If the Qur'anic text is, in truth, a “cultural product,” this means that it entered into an interactive relation with cultural reality; that is, it “was formed in reality and culture over a period exceeding twenty years” (14).

The Qur'an describes itself as a message, and a message “represents a communicative relation between a sender and a receiver through a code, or linguistic system” (15). God, the sender, wished to establish a communicative relation with human beings, the receiver; therefore He embodied His discourse in a linguistic system, the Arabic language. That is to say, His discourse is not separate from the cultural system in which it manifested itself; otherwise the attribute of “message” would be negated. To say that the Qur'an is a cultural product is to speak of two stages: the stage of genesis and formation within culture, and the stage of completion and the formation of culture. The two stages are not in contradiction. In the first stage, the text was not a mere passive bearer of culture; rather, it had its own efficacy in embodying culture and reality, an efficacy that does not reflect them mechanically but embodies them constructively, rebuilding their givens within a new system. In the second stage, culture was not a passive echo of the text; it too possesses “its own mechanisms for dealing with the text, by rereading and interpreting it” (16).

What has just been set forth regarding Abu Zayd’s definitions of the Qur'an and its nature is what placed him in opposition to the dominant religious discourse. The latter adopts the “descending dialectic,” which begins by speaking of God, the speaker of the text; then the Prophet, the first receiver of the text; then reality as expressed in the disciplines of the Qur'anic sciences: occasions of revelation, Meccan and Medinan, abrogating and abrogated, and so on. By contrast, Abu Zayd adopts the “ascending dialectic,” which proceeds from reality and known historical facts toward the unknown and hidden, attempting to uncover and clarify it. If the text performs an informative communicative function, then we cannot understand the nature of the message it bears except by analyzing “its linguistic givens in light of the reality through which the text was formed” (17). The credibility of the text derives from Arab culture’s acceptance of it, not from the large number of believers in it; just as the small number of those who acknowledge its sanctity and divinity does not diminish its value. Its existence “in culture is more momentous than its existence in the emotions of believers and the faithful” (18). If we agree that every text is a message, then the Qur'an is necessarily a text, and we may apply to it the methods of analyzing linguistic and literary texts, for these methods are appropriate to its nature.

Abu Zayd made clear the motives behind his definition of the Qur'an as a linguistic-cultural text, especially in the first chapter of his book The Concept of the Text, titled “The Text in Culture: Formation and Forming.” Among the evidence for this is that the Arabic language preceded the revelation of the Qur'an, and language is not an empty vessel that we fill with whatever we wish. Rather, it is laden with concepts, conceptions, and representations. The Qur'an came in this language; it did not empty it entirely of its content and replace it with a new content. What happened, instead, was that it “introduced interpretations and semantic transformations into some terms” (19). Likewise, the Qur'an entered into conflict with poetry and tried to deny poeticality to the Prophet Muhammad, a conflict reflected in its structure.

It is also known that the Arabs of the Peninsula did not dispute with Muhammad over revelation and its meaning, because it was known in their culture. Rather, the question they posed was: why you, Muhammad, in particular, and not others? “And they said: Why was this Qur'an not sent down upon a great man from the two towns?” (al-Zukhruf: 30). The relation between earth and heaven, or between the human and the non-human, was something established in Arab culture before Islam. The “connection of the phenomena of poetry and soothsaying with the jinn in the Arab mind, and the belief associated with them in the possibility of contact between humans and jinn, was the cultural basis for the phenomenon of religious revelation itself” (20). Thus those addressed wanted to understand what the Qur'an was within the framework of the phenomenon they knew. This is what we mean when we say that the Qur'an is a cultural product.

Although religious texts are divine in source, they became humanized because they were subject to the laws of culture; that is, they “were embodied in history and language and addressed, in their wording and their signification, human beings in a specific historical reality. They are governed by the dialectic of fixity and change: the texts are fixed in wording, mobile and changing in concept. Opposite the texts, reading is also governed by the dialectic of concealment and disclosure” (21). If it is established that the Qur'an is, in the final outcome, a cultural product, then, like any cultural text, it is subject to modern methods of reading and interpreting texts, such as linguistics, hermeneutics, semiotics, and others. This is because Qur'anic texts “have a signification that cannot be separated from the linguistic and cultural system of which they are a part, and this makes language and its cultural environment a reference for exegesis and interpretation” (22).

B. The Qur'an as a Historical Textب ــ القرآن نصّ تاريخي

Most of the problems raised by the writings of modernist Islamic thinkers lead back to “the illusion that there is a contradiction between the Qur'an’s being divine in source on the one hand, and its being human in explanation and interpretation on the other” (23). This illusion derives from methodological, theological, and historical contradictions. Among them is the belief that the Qur'an is not a message whose sender chose to use the language of the recipient, who is, fundamentally, human; that is, a social and historical being: “Say: I am only a human being like you; it is revealed to me that your God is one God. So whoever hopes to meet his Lord, let him do righteous work and associate no one in the worship of his Lord” (al-Kahf: 110 and Fussilat: 6), and “Say: Glory be to my Lord! Was I anything but a human messenger?” (al-Isra': 93). Among them, too, is the chosen language: Arabic, whose history and literature we know, and which is a sociocultural phenomenon that in turn points to the human and the historical: “We sent no messenger except in the tongue of his people, that he might make things clear to them; then God leads astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills, and He is the Mighty, the Wise” (Ibrahim: 4). It follows from this that if the message is addressed to a sociohistorical recipient in a natural language, then dealing with it, whether in understanding or analysis, can only be done through a human method. Hence the Qur'anic text must be approached through methods of historical analysis, and regarded as a historical phenomenon; that is, it must be placed back into history.

The critical studies of the Qur'anic sciences undertaken by Abu Zayd revealed that the Qur'anic text, at the origin of its formation, was “a collection of texts and not a single text. It was not revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, all at once; rather, it was revealed in portions over the course of a little more than twenty years” (24). But after the process of collection into a codex, these texts became one text. Thus we find in the Qur'anic sciences a clear distinction between the order of revelation, that is, texts or discourses, and the order of recitation, that is, a closed textual corpus, the mushaf.

Many hold that speaking of the historicity of the Qur'an contradicts the requirements of faith and leads to the demolition of the principle of the “generality of signification,” which in turn would make the Qur'an no more and no less than a historical witness, a heritage text, and would end by abolishing its sanctity and denying its divine source. In Abu Zayd’s view, this misunderstanding is due to the confusion that arises from failing to distinguish between the concept of history and the concept of historicity (25) in the fields of the social sciences and textual studies. They understand history as “a temporal succession of events and facts governed by the law of chance alone. Thus they make the divine wisdom that sent down the Qur'an upon His Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, in the Arabic language, in Mecca and then in Medina, from the Arabian Peninsula, in portions over a period of a little more than twenty years, at a particular time, namely the seventh century CE; they make all of this a mere coincidence that occurred in this manner by an absolute divine will behind which there is no wisdom. This cannot be a proper understanding for ordinary believers, let alone writers; so how much less for scholars and men of titles” (26). They also understand the historicity of texts to mean that their signification is confined and incapable of addressing people after their revelation.

The historicity of the Qur'an is not a concept by which temporality is always meant. Rather, it means “that we are obliged to restore the historical context of the Qur'an’s revelation in order to understand the levels of meaning and the horizons of signification, so that, in the field of rulings and legislation, we can distinguish between levels to which our forebears paid no attention” (27). The phrase “the Qur'an is a historical text” is understood to mean that historical is the temporal, diachronic, since in Arabic we do not find a clear distinction between the two concepts. But in English we have temporal and historical; the second is historical and is not always bound to time. A historical phenomenon has continuity in history. A temporal phenomenon, by contrast, is a phenomenon that is born, performs a particular temporal function, and then ends forever. We know, for example, the date of the Qur'an’s appearance and the date of its completion; that is, we know what happened between 612 CE and 632 CE. This is what is meant by the historical.

The Qur'an is speech formed in a specific time and place, and it was subject to their variables, such as abrogating and abrogated, Meccan and Medinan, over a period of a little more than twenty years. In its internal structure we find the historical, social, and cultural features of that stage. It is a product governed by the characteristics that marked that society and that historical period. By this definition, it has a real existence in reality and history. To clarify this idea, one may invoke the question of the createdness of the Qur'an and the debate that took place between the Mu'tazilites and their opponents among the Ash'arites and Hanbalites. The thesis of the Qur'an’s historicity is a branch of reflection on divine acts and their relation to the created, originated world. For this reason, “the Qur'an is a historical phenomenon in that it is one of the manifestations of divine speech” (28).

The historicity of the Qur'an also means that the attribute of sanctity is not immanent within it, but rather is an attribute added to it. For this reason, interpretation was “the semantic lever for the slightest sign in the text that might otherwise have met the fate of turning into a mere historical witness” (29). Muslims’ belief in the Qur'an led them to approach it through continuous exegesis and interpretation, which produced a rich cultural and cognitive wealth. This is what gives the text its vitality and continuity. If readers ceased reading the texts of al-Jahiz or other major writers, littérateurs, and philosophers, their texts would become manuscripts with no meaning except the function of decorating museums and shelves, that is, the memory of heritage.

C. The Qur'an as a Literary Textج ــ القرآن نصّ أدبيّ

Abdullah Kannun holds that “the greatest of literary texts is the Noble Qur'an, though not everyone counts it among the materials of literature” (30). Amin al-Khuli affirmed the same when he said: “The jurists studied the Qur'an, the linguists studied the Qur'an, the rhetoricians studied the Qur'an, and the philosophers and theologians studied the Qur'an. But the men of letters have not yet undertaken this study, despite the fact that the Noble Qur'an is, first and foremost, a literary miracle” (31). Literature cannot be confined to specific texts; rather, its field should be opened to include other textual and discursive patterns: religious, philosophical, historical, and so on. Literature is “every beautiful meaning in a beautiful expression; literature thus takes from religion, science, philosophy, and art” (32). This is an open definition, dependent on the property of linguistic and artistic creation.

In general, we may extract two definitions of literature. The first is specific: purely literary texts that the culture has acknowledged as literature, such as poetry, the novel, the maqama, and so on. The second is general, the one mentioned by Abdullah Kannun, and which we find in Ibn Khaldun when he defined literature by saying: “This is a science that has no subject whose accidents are examined for affirmation or negation. Rather, what is intended by it among the people of the language is its fruit, namely excellence in the two arts of verse and prose according to the styles and ways of the Arabs” (33). Even so, literature, as Kilito says, “fails to construct its object and to encompass that object convincingly. Perhaps this failure is due to the insistence on studying literary discourse in isolation from other discourses” (34).

It is noticeable that treating the Qur'anic text as a literary text in the ancient Arab heritage did not receive the attention it deserved. Classical Qur'anic commentaries, for example, became submerged in theological, juridical, philosophical, and ethical inquiries and disputes. Nevertheless, we cannot deny the existence of studies that treated it from this angle, as we find among some of the ancient scholars of eloquence and rhetoric, such as al-Jurjani, and among modern researchers such as Muhammad Abduh, Taha Hussein, Amin al-Khuli, Ahmad Khalafallah, Sayyid Qutb, and Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd.

The treatment of the Qur'anic text from the literary standpoint can be traced back to advanced stages in the Arab-Islamic heritage, especially those linguistic and rhetorical discussions connected with the merit of its superiority over poetry. Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd says: “If we trace the discussions that took place around the question of the Qur'an’s inimitability, it is easy to see that the discussion centered primarily on linguistic and rhetorical inimitability, and that the reference point of the discussion and the standards of evaluation were based on pre-Islamic literary and poetic texts. This allows us to say with confidence that the approach to the question of inimitability was a literary approach” (35).

The question of inimitability revolved around the principle of the “literary superiority of the Qur'an” over all kinds of human speech, both poetry and prose, even though at one historical moment it shifted away from its original field and was discussed within a narrow theological framework between the Mu'tazilites and the Ash'arites. Yet this displacement is natural within an intellectual system in which various fields of knowledge overlapped: linguistic, literary, theological, philosophical, ethical, and so forth.

The theory of nazm, founded by Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani, constitutes the mature formulation of the literary approach to the Qur'an in classical Arab-Islamic thought. It is known that he sees inimitability as residing fundamentally in the Qur'an’s total internal structure, its nazm, composition, and arrangement. He strongly rejects the logic of non-causation and the claim that inimitability lies outside the structure of the text. He is not convinced “that inimitability lies in the truth of its reports about the past, present, and future, for that confines inimitability to some verses of the Qur'an rather than all verses and suras. As for the interpretation that confines inimitability to particular patterns of simile, representation, metaphor, and trope, Abd al-Qahir rightly asks: what then of the places that contain none of those rhetorical patterns, and these are the majority in the Qur'an?” (36). If it is neither this nor that, is inimitability to be found in subtle meanings approved by the intellect, or in its words? Al-Jurjani answers: “What rendered them incapable were virtues that appeared to them in its composition, properties they encountered in the flow of its wording, and marvels that struck them in the beginnings and endings of its verses, in the courses and placements of its words, in the cast of every parable, the movement of every report, the form of every admonition and warning, announcement and reminder, enticement and intimidation, and with every proof and demonstration, attribute and clarification. It dazzled them that they contemplated it sura by sura, ten verses by ten, verse by verse, and found in all of it not a word whose place jarred, not a term whose condition was objectionable, nor did they see that another would be more fitting there, more similar, more deserving, or more apt. Rather, they found a coherence that dazzled minds and rendered the multitude incapable, an order and harmony, a precision and mastery, that left no place for ambition in the soul of any eloquent man among them, even if the crown of his head scraped the sky, until tongues fell silent from claiming and speaking, and the mighty were abased and had no power to charge” (37). The locus of the Qur'an’s inimitability, according to al-Jurjani, lies in its total internal construction, and the path to knowing and discovering it is possible through knowing the laws of speech, especially literature and poetry. For “if we know that the aspect through which the proof of the Qur'an was established, appeared, became manifest, and dazzled, is that it possessed such a degree of eloquence that human powers fall short of it, and reached a limit to which only thoughts can aspire, then it would be impossible to know that it is so except for one who knows poetry, which is the register of the Arabs, the sign of literature, and which none doubts was the field of the people when they competed in eloquence and clarity and vied for the prize therein, and who then investigated the causes by which superiority varied and by which some poetry surpassed other poetry” (38).

Al-Jurjani elevated the study of literature and knowledge of its laws and measures to the rank of obligation, according to the jurisprudential rule that says: “That without which an obligation cannot be fulfilled is itself obligatory”; that is, the study of literature is a religious duty for anyone who wishes to discover the proofs of inimitability (39). Understanding the Qur'an should take place on the basis “on which the Arabs understood it at the time of its revelation, in terms of their understanding of linguistic expressions and literary phrases” (40). Thus the literary method is not a newly invented method in contemporary Qur'anic studies; rather, it goes back to the efforts of al-Jurjani and others in the classical age. It is a method suited to the literary and artistic nature distinctive of the Qur'an.

Abu Zayd holds that “religious texts are literary texts par excellence, in that they exercise their effect on the recipient through stylistic elements and a linguistic structure that is largely poetic or narrative. This is a first characteristic. The second characteristic is that these texts are chanted or recited in the Qur'anic language, after the performance of particular purificatory rites” (41). The texts of the Qur'an are linguistic, with narrative and representational structures, first and foremost narrative and poetic, and an effective approach to them must be suited to this characteristic. The affective action that distinguishes the Qur'an goes back to its literary and artistic linguistic construction. It is “depiction by color, depiction by movement, depiction by imagination, and also depiction by tone, which takes the place of color in representation. Often description, dialogue, the resonance of words, the melody of phrases, and the music of the context combine to bring out an image that the eye and ear, sense and imagination, thought and feeling, can contemplate fully” (42). These rhetorical and artistic qualities explain the psychological tension, mental and emotional dispersal, and state of estrangement and unfamiliarity expressed by those who listened to the Qur'an, until they were unable to classify it within any of the kinds of speech they knew. They described it as resembling the sayings of soothsayers, or as similar to poetry, or as magic.

The literary method in understanding and interpreting the Qur'an was revived in the modern age by Muhammad Abduh, who spoke of representation, a rhetorical concept, in the Qur'an and viewed Qur'anic stories as representations, including the story of Adam and his departure from Paradise. Those stories do not have a historical signification; rather, “what is intended by them is reflection and admonition from the context” (43). What matters most is the narrative style and linguistic construction that lead to moral reflection. On this basis, inimitability lies in “the wording, not in the stories themselves” (44).

After Muhammad Abduh came Taha Hussein, who developed the method, especially in his book On Pre-Islamic Poetry, when he indicated that the Qur'anic story of Abraham and Ishmael need not necessarily be regarded as a historical event. He based this view on what Muhammad Abduh had established regarding the lack of necessity for correspondence between history and Qur'anic narrative. He says: “The Torah may tell us about Abraham and Ishmael, and the Qur'an may tell us about them as well. But the occurrence of these two names in the Torah and the Qur'an is not sufficient to prove their historical existence, let alone to prove this story that tells us of Ishmael son of Abraham’s migration to Mecca and the emergence of the Arabized Arabs there” (45). This interpretation has its justification. The context of the inquiry is a discussion of the extent to which pre-Islamic poetry belongs to the period before Islam. In that inquiry, Taha Hussein relied on the linguistic and artistic method and concluded that the relation between the original Arabic spoken by the Adnanites in the Hijaz and northern Arabia, and the language spoken by the Qahtanites in Yemen, is like the relation between Arabic and any Semitic language. Thus there was no unified language shared by the Adnanites of the north and the Qahtanites of the south.

Nor should we forget the central role played by Amin al-Khuli in consolidating the foundations of the literary method, when he decided that the literariness of the Qur'an is the fundamental feature that precedes any other feature, and that literary analysis and the art of utterance precede any philosophical or juridical analysis. The Qur'an is “the most sacred book of Arab art, whether one regards it as such in religion or not” (46). For him, literary study is divided into two steps (47): the study of what surrounds the Qur'anic text, through the study of its particular context represented by the Qur'anic sciences, such as occasions of revelation, Meccan and Medinan, abrogating and abrogated, collection and arrangement; and the cultural, social, historical, and religious context; then the internal linguistic study. Abu Zayd summarizes these two steps by saying: “The signification of the text is disclosed through analyzing its linguistic structure first and through returning to the context of its production second. In addition, neglecting either side prevents the interpreter from discovering signification and meaning” (48). This method, whose foundations were laid by al-Khuli, is the one applied by Aisha Abd al-Rahman in The Rhetorical Exegesis of the Noble Qur'an (49), Ahmad Khalafallah in his dissertation The Narrative Art in the Qur'an (50), and Shukri Ayyad in his master’s thesis The Day of Judgment in the Qur'an (51).

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd is an extension of this tendency, and he worked to develop it in accordance with the achievements of new knowledge in linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, and the broader methods of analyzing discourses and texts. He states that when he was working on his study The Concept of the Text, Sheikh al-Khuli was a reference for him in what is called the literariness of the Qur'an. He says: “This study falls at the heart of literary study, and the call to study the Qur'an as a text is nothing but a response to an old call that circumstances allowed to pass without being realized. It is the call of Sheikh Amin al-Khuli” (52).

The literary study of the Qur'an is capable of achieving a “scientific consciousness” of it, and of protecting it from ideological uses and political manipulations. It also enables us to distinguish between three contextual levels that interact in producing its significations and intentions, namely:

The historical context: everything connected with the material and immaterial circumstances that accompanied the revelation of the Qur'an, in which it was collected, edited, read, and preserved, and whose people it addressed first, delivering its message to them so that they might undertake its performance and communicate it to the peoples of the world. This is in addition to “what is connected with spiritual life in all that this word embraces: a remote past and a known history, a family or tribal system, government of whatever degree, belief of whatever color, arts however varied, and activities however different and ramified” (53). Everything connected with that Arab life is therefore necessary for understanding the Arabic Qur'an.

The context of reception: the context that produces signification through the interaction between the text and readers, that is, the historicity of reception.

The context of purport: this represents the result of the interaction of the two preceding contexts and emerges from them through the researcher’s critical awareness of his own position and his cognitive recognition of his prior biases. This is the awareness that limits their effect on his thought and analyses and protects him from temperamental judgments and contrived interpretations that forcibly impose a modern purport on a historical meaning, or the reverse.

Conclusionخاتمة

The intellectual and scientific efforts exerted by Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd are distinguished by two fundamental dimensions. The first consists in reconsidering many issues that the Islamic mind had accepted as settled axioms around which debate had ended, including his inquiry into the nature of revelation by excavating the historical and epistemic conditions that made it an actual and intelligible phenomenon. The second appears in his effort to analyze the Qur'anic text in terms of its way of producing signification and uncovering the mechanisms of its formation and construction, in addition to searching for the mechanisms that distinguished it from other texts and gave it the authority of superiority. Ali Harb says: “As for Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, the importance of his intellectual work does not lie in his boldness in saying that the Qur'anic text is a product of Arab reality and Arab culture in the pre-Islamic age; for such a statement adds nothing new to thought. It is more fitting that we search for the intellectual importance in Abu Zayd’s analyses of the mechanisms of the Qur'anic text in proving its superiority or establishing its authority. This is something that did not draw the attention of those who accused or condemned him. Thus importance comes from the credibility of ideas and the strength of concepts” (54). To say that the Qur'an is a linguistic, historical, cultural product, and to reaffirm this at every time and occasion, is not the simple matter Ali Harb imagines; for this objective historical idea is wholly unacceptable within the Islamic discursive field. As for his drawing attention to Abu Zayd’s analytical efforts in revealing the mechanisms of the Qur'anic text in producing indications and meanings, this is where research and studies should be directed. For the Qur'anic text, in its total structure, constitutes a linguistic textual phenomenon or event that repeatedly imposes its authority on the reader. Our task is only to search for those linguistic, semantic, and artistic mechanisms, means, and rules that it employs, by which it builds its authority and guarantees its continuity and effect.

The historical, linguistic, and literary approaches adopted by Abu Zayd and others do not at all mean removing or stripping sanctity from the Qur'an so much as they aim to deepen the relation of contemporary Muslims to their Qur'an, after ideological and reductionist interpretations by political authorities, religious institutions, and fundamentalist movements have taken it away from them.

List of Notes and Sourcesقائمة الهوامش والمصادر

(1) Muhammad Abed al-Jabri: Introduction to the Qur'an, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut, first edition, 2008, p. 9.

(2) Muhammad Miftah: Analysis of Poetic Discourse: The Strategy of Intertextuality, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, third edition, 1992, p. 120.

(3) Muhammad Miftah’s statement that the text is a verbal corpus means that it is composed of speech and is not a photograph, a drawing, an architectural work, a garment, and so on. His statement that it is closed means the closure of its written mark, which is what makes his definition limited and confined to the domain of written language.

(4) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth: The Will to Knowledge and the Will to Domination, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca, Morocco, fifth edition, 2006, p. 169.

(5) Abu Zayd: Thinking in the Time of Takfir: Against Ignorance, Falsification, and Superstition, Sina Publishing, first edition, 1995, pp. 133-135.

(6) Abu Zayd: Renewal, Prohibition, and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca, Morocco, first edition, 2010, pp. 74-75.

(7) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 9. Revelation and history are inseparable; therefore the phenomenon of revelation must be discovered within its historical and cultural context, and understood as a sociohistorical phenomenon by relying on semantic, social, and historical analysis. This is what Abu Zayd sought to do in the study The Concept of the Text: A Study in the Sciences of the Qur'an.

(8) Abu Zayd: Critique of Religious Discourse, Sina Publishing, first edition, 1992, pp. 203-206.

(9) The same reference, pp. 205-206. This equivalence between the Qur'an and Jesus had previously been noted by Arkoun; see The Qur'an: From Inherited Exegesis to the Analysis of Religious Discourse, pp. 23-24.

(10) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text: A Study in the Sciences of the Qur'an, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, third edition, 1996, p. 9.

(11) The same reference, pp. 18-19.

(12) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 97.

(13) The same reference, p. 83. For scholars of semiotics, culture is a set of multiple systems composed of signs, at the heart of whose center lies the system of linguistic signs, because it is the system into which the other systems are expressively resolved at the level of scientific study and analysis.

(14) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text, p. 24.

(15) The same reference, p. 24.

(16) The same, p. 25.

(17) Ibid., p. 26.

(18) Ibid., p. 28.

(19) See our study: “Contemporary Qur'anology: Qur'anic Language and the Mechanisms of Semantic Transformation,” published on the Mominoun Without Borders platform. https://www.mominoun.com/pdf1/2025-01/67869e20465911643385927.pdf (20) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text, pp. 33-34.

(21) Abu Zayd: Critique of Religious Discourse, pp. 118-119.

(22) Abu Zayd: Imam al-Shafi'i and the Founding of Centrist Ideology, Madbouli Bookshop, Cairo, second edition, 1996, p. 198.

(23) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 260.

(24) The same reference, pp. 257-258. This is confirmed by the statement of those opposed to prophethood who objected to the Qur'an’s being revealed in installments and portions: “Those who disbelieve said: Why was the Qur'an not sent down to him all at once? Thus, that We may strengthen your heart thereby; and We have recited it in measured recitation” (al-Furqan: 32).

(25) Alain Touraine defines historicity as follows: “the capacity enjoyed by every society to produce its own social and cultural field and its own historical milieu as well (...) What I shall call historicity is therefore the particular nature that characterizes social systems that possess the possibility of movement and action upon themselves through a set of cultural and social orientations.” See Muhammad Arkoun: Islamic Thought: A Scientific Reading, translated by Hashim Salih, Arab Cultural Center, Beirut, second edition, 1996, p. 116.

(26) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, pp. 88-89.

(27) Abu Zayd: Circles of Fear: A Reading in the Discourse on Women, Arab Cultural Center, Beirut, first edition, 1999, p. 11. See also the third chapter of his book Thinking in the Time of Takfir, titled “The Calumniated Concept of Historicity.”

(28) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 75.

(29) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 264.

(30) Abdullah Kannun: al-Ta'ashib: Moroccan Literature, History and Criticism, Dar al-Kitab al-Misri, Cairo-Beirut, second edition, n.d., p. 23.

(31) Muhammad Ahmad Khalafallah: Qur'anic Concepts, Alam al-Ma'rifa, no. 79, 1984, pp. 7-8.

(32) Abdullah Kannun: al-Ta'ashib, p. 26.

(33) Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman: The Muqaddima, introduced and edited by Ali Abd al-Wahid Wafi, Lajnat al-Bayan al-Arabi, second edition, 1965, vol. 4, chapter on the science of literature, p. 1387.

(34) Abdelfattah Kilito: Literature and Strangeness: A Structural Study in Arabic Literature, Dar Toubkal Publishing, Casablanca, Morocco, second edition, 2006, p. 24.

(35) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 261.

(36) Abu Zayd: Renewal, Prohibition, and Interpretation: Between Scientific Knowledge and the Fear of Takfir, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, first edition, 2010, p. 124.

(37) Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani: Proofs of Inimitability, read and annotated by Mahmud Muhammad Shakir, al-Khanji Library, Cairo, second edition, 1989, p. 39.

(38) The same reference, pp. 8-9.

…the essay continues at the source.

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