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Contemporary Qur’anology: Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd and the Concept and Nature of the Qur’an

The essay argues that Abu Zayd’s linguistic, historical, and literary approach to the Qur’an does not abolish its sacredness, but reopens it to rigorous understanding beyond ideological appropriation.

القرآنولوجيا المعاصرة: نصر حامد أبو زيد ومفهوم القرآن وطبيعته
Mominoun Without Borders · 1 January 2026 · read the original in Arabic →

القرآنولوجيا المعاصرة:

Contemporary Qur’anology:

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd and the Concept and Nature of the Qur’an: An Introductionنصر حامد أبو زيد ومفهوم القرآن وطبيعته تمهيد

القرآنُ ــــ في اعتقاد المسلمين ــــ وحيٌ إلهيٌّ، وهو معطى أوليّ وجوهريّ في بنية العقل الإسلامي، وأيُّ صياغة جديدة لمعنى الحياة لابد، حسب هذا الاعتقاد، أنْ ترتكز على هذه البؤرة المركزية المُنتجة للمعنى. وإنّ الاجتهاد في تأويل دِلالات القرآن ومقاصده ضرورة عملية يقتضيها الواقع المتحرك والمتغير للمجتمعات الإسلامية. وقد كان الاجتهادُ عاملا من عوامل الإبداع والحيوية والاختلاف في الفكر الإسلامي الكلاسيكي، وفُهمت التأويلات المتعددة والمتنوعة على أنها دلالة قوية على الثراء الدلالي للقرآن؛ وهكذا ففهم القرآن وتأويله: "مهمة مطروحة في كل وقت ومطلوبة في كل زمان، وقد يكفي التذكير بأنّ اقتناعنا بأن القرآن يخاطب أهل كل زمان ومكان، يفرض علينا اكتساب فهم متجدد للقرآن بتجدد الأحوال في كل عصر.."(1).

The Qur’an, in Muslim belief, is divine revelation, and as such it is a primary and essential datum in the structure of the Islamic mind. Any new formulation of the meaning of life must, according to this belief, be grounded in this central focus that produces meaning. Effort in interpreting the significations and purposes of the Qur’an is a practical necessity required by the mobile and changing reality of Islamic societies. Ijtihad was one of the factors of creativity, vitality, and difference in classical Islamic thought, and multiple and varied interpretations were understood as a powerful indication of the Qur’an’s semantic richness. Thus understanding and interpreting the Qur’an is “a task posed at every time and required in every age; it may suffice to recall that our conviction that the Qur’an addresses the people of every time and place obliges us to acquire a renewed understanding of the Qur’an as circumstances are renewed in every age...” (1).

1. Conceptual Determinations1 ــ تحديدات مفهومية

The concept of “text” is one whose definitions vary according to the fields of knowledge that employ it in constructing their theoretical edifices and analytical models. Muhammad Miftah (2) extracted the most important components of the text from its determinations within structuralism, the sociology of literature, semantic psychoanalysis, and discourse analysis. The sum of these components is that the text is a verbal corpus, that it is an event, and that it is communicative, interactive, closed, and generative; that is, it is the corpus of a verbal event with multiple functions. Yet this synthetic definition is governed by the written linguistic sign (3), and does not include other systems of signification centered on the non-linguistic sign. In the field of semiology, the concept of “text” expands to include every system of linguistic and non-linguistic signs that produces a total meaning. Under this definition fall linguistic texts and discourses, as well as non-linguistic ones such as images, bodily gestures, celebrations, rites, rituals, clothing, the dining table, and so forth. It is also “a series of relations that produces a total meaning bearing a message. Whether those signs are signs in natural language, namely words, or signs in other languages, the ordering of signs into a system that bears a message makes them a text” (4). The text is an independent structure in itself that includes the author, intention, and implied reader, and does not exclude the linguistic and cultural context. The author has a particular intention in composing and publishing the text, and his intentionality operates only within the linguistic and cultural space to which he belongs; it also requires imagining a particular recipient for the text. In addition, it contains the meaning of “intertextuality,” since no text arises from a complete void. Intertextuality means that the text has connections and interactions with texts that precede it.

In the field of analyzing religious discourse, one must distinguish between the “primary text” and the “secondary text.” In the Islamic case, the Qur’an is the primary text, the first event in a system that sprang from it and accumulated around it. The secondary texts are the Prophetic Sunna, which constitutes an explanation and clarification of the Qur’an; after that come the efforts of theologians, jurists, and exegetes, which are commentaries and glosses “either on the first primary text or on the second, secondary text” (5). One must also distinguish between “religion” and “religious thought.” Religion is the texts whose divine source and sacredness the culture has accepted, whereas religious thought is the totality of human efforts that seek to understand and interpret those texts and to derive their significations and intentions. These efforts do not stand apart from the laws that govern the movement of human thought in general; they are nothing but human discourses about religion, that is, “a human effort to formulate the givens of revelation intellectually. It is an intellectual betrayal of the principles of scientific analysis to imagine that these human intellectual efforts were accomplished in isolation from the sociohistorical conditions of the societies or groups/persons who accomplished them” (6).

The search for the concept of the Qur’anic text is an attempt to discover its social and cultural nature; that is, to examine it as the center of Islamic culture, and to excavate the dialectical relation between it and Arab culture in terms of its being formed by that culture and forming it in turn. Its transcendent divine source does not mean removing it from the field of scientific study and examination. The fact that “the discourse is divine in source does not mean that it cannot be analyzed as a divine discourse embodied in human language, with all the problems of its social, cultural, and historical context” (7). As for insisting on its wholly transcendent divine nature, this means that we, with our reason and knowledge, are incapable of understanding it. It thereby becomes a closed text, a divine code that only a divine power can decipher, making it seem as if God were speaking to and communing with Himself; and the Qur’an is stripped of the attributes of message, proclamation, guidance, and light.

Reading the Qur’anic text requires methodological and intellectual strategies, foremost among them linking the unseen to the human. This linkage requires creating a scientific reading aimed at divesting it of mythicity; that is, humanizing and secularizing its reading. This operation rests on the principle of “linguistic equivalence” between the Qur’anic text and human texts. Abu Zayd says: “Religious texts are, in the final analysis, nothing but linguistic texts; that is, they belong to a specific cultural structure and were produced according to the laws of that culture, of which language is the central semantic system” (8). Thus the religious text is brought down from its absolute transcendent station into the relative sociohistorical space within which it was formed. To demonstrate the credibility of his proposition, Abu Zayd draws a comparison between the Qur’an and Jesus son of Mary, saying: “The comparison between the Qur’an and the Lord Christ, in terms of the nature of the first’s descent and the nature of the second’s birth, reveals the aspects of similarity between the religious structure of each within the doctrinal edifice of Islam itself. Perhaps we would not be exaggerating if we said that they are not two structures, but one structure, with a difference in the elements composing each: the Qur’an is the speech of God, and likewise Jesus, peace be upon him, is the Messenger of God and His Word” (9). So long as Muslims deny the divine attribute to the Prophet Jesus and affirm his human attribute, they are accordingly bound to establish the human nature of the Qur’an, because it was embodied in a human language subject to the constraints of culture in all its manifestations. If we view the Qur’an as a “cultural product” formed in “reality and culture,” we then possess the scientific entryway for studying it, because reality represents and reflects the concrete truth from which we begin, and because it contains economic, social, political, and cultural structures, and includes the first recipient of the text, its transmitter, and those addressed by it.

2. The Nature of the Qur’an A. The Qur’an as a Linguistic-Cultural Text2 ـــ طبيعة القرآن أ ــ القرآن نص لغوي ــ ثقافي

The Qur’an is a linguistic text that represents “a central text in the history of Arab culture” (10); for this reason Abu Zayd describes Islamic civilization as “the civilization of the text.” The linguistic nature of this text requires approaching it in terms of its phonetic, syntactic, lexical, semantic, and pragmatic levels, and its relation to other religious and literary texts, namely intertextuality. Yet it may be said that it is “a special text, and its specificity derives from its sacredness and the divinity of its source; nevertheless it remains a linguistic text belonging to a particular culture” (11). It derives its distinctive textual properties primarily from sociocultural facts, for sacred “divine” speech concerns us only from the moment it became humanly objectified, which, in our view, is the moment Muhammad uttered it in Arabic (12). Religious texts, then, are nothing but linguistic texts produced according to the laws of a culture whose central semantic system is language. If culture is the conception of the world held by a particular human group, then language “is the system that expresses this conception. It is therefore not a system of a single level, but its levels multiply with the levels of the culture it expresses” (13). From here arises the dialectical relation between culture and language/text, and it can only be understood by adopting the linguistic approach. To view language as a system or structure of signs means that it reshapes the world symbolically; it transforms material elements and mental conceptions into signs and symbols. Understanding culture, which is a conception of the world, can only be achieved through understanding the language that symbolizes it, that is, the instrument that reflects culture and its levels. Moreover, understanding the text can only occur through understanding the culture to which it belongs. If the Qur’anic text is, in truth, a “cultural product,” this means that it entered into an interactive relation with cultural reality; that is, it “was formed in reality and culture over a period of more than twenty years” (14).

The Qur’an describes itself as a message, and a message “represents a relation of communication between a sender and a receiver through a code, or linguistic system” (15). God, the sender, wished to establish a communicative relation with human beings, the receiver, and for this reason He embodied His discourse in a linguistic system, namely the Arabic language. That is, His discourse is not separate from the cultural system in which it manifested itself; otherwise, the attribute of “message” would be negated from it. To say that the Qur’an is a cultural product is to speak of two stages: the stage of coming-into-being and formation within culture, and the stage of completion and the formation of culture. The two stages are not in contradiction. In the first stage, the text was not merely a passive carrier of culture; rather, it had its own efficacy in embodying culture and reality, an efficacy that did not reflect them mechanically but embodied them constructively, rebuilding their givens within a new system. In the second stage, culture was not a passive echo of the text, for it too possesses “its own mechanisms for dealing with the text, through rereading and interpreting it” (16).

What has been stated above concerning Abu Zayd’s determinations of the Qur’an and its nature is what placed him in opposition to the prevailing religious discourse. That discourse relies on a “descending dialectic,” beginning with talk of God, the speaker of the text, then the Prophet, the first receiver of the text, and then reality as expressed by the disciplines of Qur’anic studies: occasions of revelation, Meccan and Medinan, abrogating and abrogated, and so on. By contrast, Abu Zayd adopts an “ascending dialectic,” which proceeds from reality and known historical facts to reach what is unknown and hidden, attempting to uncover and clarify it. If the text performs an informative communicative function, then we cannot understand the nature of the message it bears except by analyzing “its linguistic givens in light of the reality through which the text was formed” (17). The credibility of the text derives from Arab culture’s acceptance of it, not from the multitude of those who believe in it; just as the small number of those who acknowledge its sacredness and divinity does not diminish its value, for its existence “in culture is more serious than its existence in the emotions of believers and the faithful” (18). If we agree that every text is a message, then the Qur’an is necessarily a text, and we can apply to it the methods of analyzing linguistic and literary texts, because they are methods suited to its nature.

Abu Zayd clarified the motives for defining the Qur’an as a linguistic-cultural text, especially in the first chapter of his book The Concept of the Text, titled “The Text in Culture: Formation and Forming.” Among the evidence for this is that the Arabic language preceded the revelation of the Qur’an, and language is not an empty vessel that we fill with whatever we wish; rather, it is laden with concepts, conceptions, and representations. The Qur’an came in this language, and it did not empty it wholly of its content and replace it with new content. What occurred, rather, was that it “introduced interpretations and semantic transformations in certain terms” (19). Likewise, the Qur’an entered into conflict with poetry and sought to deny poeticity to the Prophet Muhammad, and this was reflected in its structure.

It is also known that the Arabs of the Peninsula did not dispute with Muhammad over revelation and its meaning, because it was known in their culture. The question they posed was: why you, Muhammad, in particular, and not other people? “And they said: Why was this Qur’an not sent down upon a great man from the two towns?” (al-Zukhruf: 30). The relation between earth and heaven, or between the human and the nonhuman, was firmly established in Arab culture before Islam. The “association of the phenomena of poetry and soothsaying with the jinn in the Arab mind, and the belief connected with them in the possibility of communication between humans and jinn, was the cultural basis of the phenomenon of religious revelation itself” (20). Thus those addressed wanted to understand the nature of the Qur’an within the framework of the phenomenon they already knew. This is what is meant by saying that the Qur’an is a cultural product.

Although religious texts are divine in source, they became humanized because of their subjection to the laws of culture; that is, they “were embodied in history and language, and in their utterance and meaning they were addressed to human beings in a specific historical reality. They are governed by the dialectic of fixity and change: texts are fixed in wording and mobile, changing in conception. Opposite the texts, reading is also governed by the dialectic of concealment and disclosure” (21). If it is established that the Qur’an is, in the final outcome, a cultural product, then, like any cultural text, it is subject to modern methods of reading and interpretation, such as linguistics, hermeneutics, semiotics, and others. This is because the signification of the Qur’anic texts “does not detach from the linguistic and cultural system of which they are part, and this makes language and its cultural environment a reference for explanation and interpretation” (22).

B. The Qur’an as a Historical Textب ــ القرآن نصّ تاريخي

Most of the problems raised by the writings of modernist Islamic thinkers come down to “the illusion that there is a contradiction between the Qur’an’s being divine in source on the one hand, and its being human in explanation and interpretation on the other” (23). This illusion goes back to methodological, theological, and historical contradictions, among them the belief that the Qur’an is not a message whose sender chose to use the language of the receiver, who is fundamentally human, that is, a social and historical being: “Say: I am only a human being like you; it is revealed to me that your God is one God. So whoever hopes to meet his Lord, let him do righteous work and associate no one in the worship of his Lord” (al-Kahf: 110 and Fussilat: 6), and “Say: Glory be to my Lord! Was I anything but a human messenger?” (al-Isra’: 93). Among them, too, is the chosen language: the Arabic language, whose history and literature we know, and which is a sociocultural phenomenon that in turn refers to the human and the historical: “We sent no messenger except in the tongue of his people, that he might make things clear to them; then God leads astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills, and He is the Mighty, the Wise” (Ibrahim: 4). From this it follows that if the message is addressed to a sociohistorical receiver in a natural language, then dealing with it, in understanding and analysis, can only take place through a human method. Hence the Qur’anic text must be treated by the methods of historical analysis and viewed as a historical phenomenon; that is, it must be placed back into history.

The critical studies of the Qur’anic sciences undertaken by Abu Zayd revealed that the Qur’anic text, at the origin of its formation, was “a set of texts and not a single text, for it was not sent down to the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, all at once, but was sent down in parts over the course of a little more than twenty years” (24). Yet after these texts were collected into a codex, they became a single text. For this reason we find in the Qur’anic sciences a clear distinction between the order of revelation, meaning texts or discourses, and the order of recitation, meaning a closed textual corpus, the mushaf.

Many hold that the assertion of the Qur’an’s historicity conflicts with the requirements of faith and leads to the destruction of the principle of “generality of signification,” which in turn reduces the Qur’an to no more and no less than a historical witness, that is, heritage, and leads to the elimination of its sacredness and the denial of its divine source. This misunderstanding, in Abu Zayd’s estimation, is due to confusion arising from the failure to distinguish between the concept of history and the concept of historicity (25) in the fields of social and textual studies. They understand history as “a temporal succession of events and occurrences governed by the law of chance alone. Thus they make the divine wisdom that sent the Qur’an down to His Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, in Arabic, in Mecca and then in Medina, from the Arabian Peninsula, in parts over a little more than twenty years, at a particular time, the seventh century CE, they make all of this mere chance that happened in this way by an absolute divine will behind which there is no wisdom. This cannot properly be the understanding of ordinary believers, let alone writers; so how much less of scholars and holders of titles” (26). They also understand the historicity of texts as meaning that their signification is confined and incapable of addressing people after their revelation.

The historicity of the Qur’an is not always intended to mean temporality. Rather, it means that “we are obliged to recover the historical context of the Qur’an’s revelation in order to understand the levels of meaning and the horizons of signification, so that in the field of rulings and legislation we can distinguish between levels to which our forebears did not attend” (27). From the statement “the Qur’an is a historical text,” one might understand historical as temporal, diachronic, since in Arabic we do not find a clear distinction between the two concepts. But in English we have “temporal” and “historical,” and the latter is the historical, which is not always bound to time. A historical phenomenon has continuity in history. A temporal phenomenon, by contrast, is a phenomenon that is born, performs a certain temporal function, and then ends forever. We know, for example, the date of the Qur’an’s appearance and the date of its completion; that is, we know what happened between 612 and 632 CE. This is what is meant by the historical.

The Qur’an is speech formed in a specific time and place, and for a little more than twenty years it was subject to their variables, such as the abrogating and abrogated, and the Meccan and Medinan. In its internal structure we find the historical, social, and cultural features of that stage. It is a product governed by the characteristics that marked that society and that historical period. Under this definition, it has a real existence in reality and history. To clarify this idea, one may invoke the question of the createdness of the Qur’an and the debates that took place between the Mu‘tazila and their Ash‘arite and Hanbalite opponents. The assertion of the Qur’an’s historicity is a branch of the view of divine acts and of their action in the created, originated world. Therefore, “the Qur’an is a historical phenomenon insofar as it is one of the manifestations of divine speech” (28).

By the historicity of the Qur’an is also meant that the attribute of sacredness is not immanent in it, but is an attribute added to it. For this reason interpretation was “the semantic lever of the slightest sign in the text that might otherwise have faced the fate of being transformed into a mere historical witness” (29). Muslims’ belief in the Qur’an made them turn to it in constant explanation and interpretation, which produced a rich cultural and epistemic wealth. This is what gives the text its vitality and continuity. If readers stop reading the texts of al-Jahiz or other major writers, litterateurs, and philosophers, their texts will turn into manuscripts with no meaning beyond the function of adorning museums and shelves, that is, heritage memory.

C. The Qur’an as a Literary Textج ــ القرآن نصّ أدبيّ

Abdullah Guennoun holds that “the greatest of literary texts is the Noble Qur’an, though it is not included by everyone in the subject matter of literature” (30). This is what Amin al-Khuli confirmed when he said: “The jurists have studied the Qur’an, the linguists have studied the Qur’an, the rhetoricians have studied the Qur’an, and the philosophers and theologians have studied the Qur’an. But the men of letters have not yet undertaken this study, despite the fact that the Noble Qur’an is, in the first place, a literary miracle” (31). Literature cannot be confined to particular texts; rather, its field must be opened to include other textual and discursive patterns: religious, philosophical, historical, and so on. Literature is “every beautiful meaning in a beautiful expression; thus literature takes from religion, science, philosophy, and art” (32). This is an open definition, dependent on the property of linguistic and artistic creation.

In general, we may extract two definitions of literature. The first is specific: it consists of pure literary texts that the culture has accepted as literature, such as poetry, the novel, the maqama, and so forth. The second is general, the one mentioned by Abdullah Guennoun, and which we find in Ibn Khaldun when he defined literature by saying: “This is a science that has no subject whose accidents are examined for affirmation or negation. Rather, its purpose among the people of the tongue is its fruit, namely excellence in the two arts of verse and prose according to the styles and manners of the Arabs” (33). Yet literature, as Kilito says, “fails to construct its object and to encompass that object in a convincing manner. Perhaps this failure goes back to the insistence on studying literary discourse in isolation from other discourses” (34).

What is noticeable is that treating the Qur’anic text as a literary text in the ancient Arab heritage did not receive the attention it deserved. Classical Qur’anic commentaries, for example, became submerged in theological, juristic, philosophical, and ethical discussions and disputes. Yet we cannot deny the existence of studies that dealt with it from this angle, as we find among some of the early masters of eloquence and rhetoric, such as al-Jurjani, and among modern researchers such as Muhammad Abduh, Taha Hussein, Amin al-Khuli, Ahmad Khalafallah, Sayyid Qutb, and Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd.

The literary treatment of the Qur’anic text can be traced back to advanced stages in the Arab-Islamic heritage, especially those linguistic and rhetorical discussions concerning the feature of its superiority over poetry. Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd says: “If we follow the discussions that revolved around the question of the Qur’an’s inimitability, it is easy to perceive that the discussion centered primarily on linguistic and rhetorical inimitability, and that the reference point of the discussion and the criteria of evaluation rested on pre-Islamic literary and poetic texts. This allows us to say with confidence that the approach to the question of inimitability was a literary approach” (35).

The question of inimitability centered on the principle of the “literary superiority of the Qur’an” over all kinds of human speech, poetry and prose alike, even though at a certain historical moment it shifted away from its original field and was discussed within a narrow theological framework between the Mu‘tazila and the Ash‘arites. Yet this displacement is natural within an intellectual system in which diverse fields of knowledge overlapped: linguistic, literary, theological, philosophical, ethical, and others.

The theory of nazm, or composition, founded by Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani, constitutes the mature formulation of the literary approach to the Qur’an in classical Arab-Islamic thought. It is well known that he sees inimitability as residing fundamentally in the Qur’an’s total internal structure, its composition, arrangement, and construction. He strongly rejects the logic of non-explanation and the claim that inimitability lies outside the structure of the text. He is not persuaded “that inimitability lies in the truthfulness of its reports about the past, present, and future, for that confines inimitability to certain verses of the Qur’an rather than all its verses and suras. As for the interpretation that confines inimitability to specific kinds of simile, representation, metaphor, and figurative expression, Abd al-Qahir rightly asks: what of the places that contain none of those rhetorical kinds, and these are the majority in the Qur’an?” (36). If inimitability is neither this nor that, does it lie in subtle meanings admired by the intellect, or in its words? Al-Jurjani answers: “What rendered them incapable were advantages that appeared to them in its composition, properties they found in the course of its wording, marvels that overwhelmed them in the openings of its verses and their endings, in the flow of its words and their positions, in the striking of every parable, the course of every report, the form of every admonition and warning, notification and reminder, encouragement and deterrence, and with every proof and demonstration, attribute and clarification. What dazzled them was that they contemplated it sura by sura, ten by ten, verse by verse, and in all of it they did not find a word whose place jarred, a term whose matter was objectionable, or anything for which another would be more fitting there, more similar, more proper, or more worthy. Rather, they found a coherence that dazzled minds and confounded the multitude, an order and harmony, a precision and mastery, that left in the soul of the most eloquent among them, even if he rubbed the crown of his head against the sky, no place for aspiration, until tongues fell silent from claiming and speaking, and the champions were abased and could not assail” (37). Thus the aspect of the Qur’an’s inimitability, according to al-Jurjani, lies in its total internal construction, and the path to knowing and discovering it is possible through knowing the laws of speech, especially literature and poetry. This is because “if we know that the aspect from which the proof of the Qur’an arose and appeared, became clear and dazzling, is that it attained a degree of eloquence beyond the powers of human beings and reached an end to which thought alone may aspire, then it would be impossible to know that it is so except by one who knows poetry, which is the register of the Arabs, the title of literature, and which there is no doubt was the arena of the people when they competed in eloquence and clarity and vied for the prize therein, and then investigated the causes by which difference in merit occurred and by which some poetry surpassed other poetry” (38).

Al-Jurjani raised the study of literature and the knowledge of its laws and standards to the level of obligation, in accordance with the juristic rule that says: “That without which an obligation cannot be fulfilled is itself obligatory.” That is, the study of literature is a religious duty for anyone who wishes to discover the proofs of inimitability (39). Understanding the Qur’an must proceed on the basis “on which the Arabs understood it at the time of its revelation, in terms of understanding linguistic words and literary expressions” (40). Thus the literary method is not a newly invented method in contemporary Qur’anic studies; rather, it goes back to the efforts of al-Jurjani and others in the classical age. It is a method suited to the distinctive literary and artistic nature of the Qur’an.

Abu Zayd holds that “religious texts are literary texts par excellence, in that they exercise their effect on the recipient through stylistic elements and a linguistic structure that is poetic or narrative to a large extent. This is the first feature. The second feature is that these texts are chanted or recited in the Qur’anic language after the performance of special rites of purification” (41). The texts of the Qur’an are linguistic texts with narrative and representational structures, primarily narrative and poetic, and an effective approach to them must correspond to this feature. The affective action that marks the Qur’an goes back to its linguistic, literary, and artistic construction. It is “depiction by color, depiction by movement, depiction by imagination, just as it is depiction by tone, which takes the place of color in representation. Often description, dialogue, the resonance of words, the cadence of phrases, and the music of the context participate in bringing forth an image that the eye and ear, sense and imagination, thought and conscience fully behold” (42). These rhetorical and artistic properties explain the psychological tension, mental and emotional dispersion, and state of estrangement and unfamiliarity expressed by those who listened to the Qur’an, until they were unable to classify it within the circle of the kinds of speech they knew; they described it as resembling the sayings of soothsayers, as akin to poetry, or as magic.

The literary method in understanding and interpreting the Qur’an was revived in the modern age by Muhammad Abduh, who spoke of representation, a rhetorical concept, in the Qur’an, and viewed Qur’anic stories as representations, including the story of Adam and his departure from Paradise. These stories have no historical signification; rather, “what is intended by them is reflection and admonition from the context” (43). What matters most is the narrative style and linguistic construction that leads to moral reflection. On this basis, inimitability lies in “the wording, not in the stories themselves” (44).

After Muhammad Abduh came Taha Hussein, who developed the method, especially in his book On Pre-Islamic Poetry, when he indicated that the Qur’anic story of Abraham and Ishmael need not necessarily be regarded as a historical event. In this opinion he relied on what Muhammad Abduh had established regarding the lack of any necessity for correspondence between history and Qur’anic narrative. He says: “The Torah may tell us about Abraham and Ishmael, and the Qur’an may tell us about them as well. But the occurrence of these two names in the Torah and the Qur’an is not enough to establish their historical existence, let alone to establish this story that tells us of the migration of Ishmael son of Abraham to Mecca and the emergence of the Arabized Arabs there” (45). This interpretation has its justification, for the context of the inquiry is a discussion of the extent to which pre-Islamic poetry belongs to the period before Islam. In that inquiry Taha Hussein relied on the linguistic-artistic method and concluded that the relation between the origin of the Arabic spoken by the Adnanites, in the Hijaz and northern Arabia, and the language spoken by the Qahtanites in Yemen is like the relation between Arabic and any Semitic language. Thus there was no unified language shared by the Adnanites of the north and the Qahtanites of the south.

Nor should we forget the central role played by Amin al-Khuli in consolidating the foundations of the literary method, when he established that the literariness of the Qur’an is the fundamental feature that precedes any other feature, and that literary analysis and the art of expression precede any philosophical or juristic analysis. The Qur’an is “the most sacred book of Arab art, whether one looks at it as such in religion or not” (46). Literary study, for him, is divided into two steps (47): the study of what surrounds the Qur’anic text, through the study of its particular context represented by the Qur’anic sciences, such as occasions of revelation, Meccan and Medinan, abrogating and abrogated, collection and arrangement, and the cultural, social, historical, and religious context; then the internal linguistic study. Abu Zayd summarizes these two steps by saying: “The signification of the text is disclosed first through analyzing its linguistic construction, and second through returning to the context of its production. In addition, neglecting either of the two aspects prevents the interpreter from discovering signification and meaning” (48). This method, whose foundations al-Khuli laid, is the one Aisha Abd al-Rahman applied in The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Noble Qur’an (49), Ahmad Khalafallah in his dissertation The Narrative Art in the Qur’an (50), and Shukri Ayyad in his master’s thesis The Day of Reckoning in the Qur’an (51).

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd is an extension of this tendency, and he worked to develop it in accordance with the achievements of new knowledge in linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, and the full range of methods for analyzing discourses and texts. He states that when he was working on his study The Concept of the Text, Sheikh al-Khuli was a reference for him in what is called the literariness of the Qur’an. He says: “This study lies at the very heart of literary inquiry, and the call to study the Qur’an as a text is nothing but a response to an old call that circumstances caused to pass without being realized. It is the call of Sheikh Amin al-Khuli” (52).

The literary study of the Qur’an is capable of achieving a “scientific consciousness” of it, and of protecting it from ideological uses and political manipulations. It also enables us to distinguish between three contextual levels that interact in producing its significations and intentions. These are:

The historical context: everything connected to the material and moral conditions that accompanied the revelation of the Qur’an, in which it was collected, edited, read, and preserved, and whose people it first addressed, to them delivering its message so that they would undertake to carry it and convey it to the peoples of the world. It also includes “what is connected to moral life in all that this phrase can encompass: remote past, known history, family or tribal system, government of whatever degree, belief of whatever color, arts however varied, and works however diverse and ramified” (53). Everything connected to that Arab life is necessary for understanding the Arabic Qur’an.

The context of reception: the context that produces signification through the interaction between the text and readers, that is, the historicity of reception.

The context of import: this represents the result of the interaction of the two preceding contexts, and emerges from them through the researcher’s critical awareness of his position and his epistemic awareness of his prior biases. This is the awareness that limits their influence on his thinking and analyses, and protects him from temperamental judgments and contrived interpretations that forcibly impose a contemporary import on a historical meaning, or the reverse.

Conclusionخاتمة

The intellectual and scientific efforts made by Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd are marked by two fundamental dimensions. The first consists in reconsidering many issues that the Islamic mind accepted as settled assumptions around which debate had ended, among them his inquiry into the nature of revelation by excavating the historical and epistemic conditions that made it an actual and intelligible phenomenon. The second appears in his effort to analyze the Qur’anic text in terms of its method of producing signification and disclosing the mechanisms of its formation and construction, in addition to searching for the mechanisms that distinguished it from other texts and granted it the authority of superiority. Ali Harb says: “As for Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, the importance of his intellectual work does not lie in his daring to say that the Qur’anic text is the product of the reality of the Arabs and of Arab culture in the pre-Islamic age; for such a statement adds nothing new to thought. It is more proper to seek the intellectual importance in Abu Zayd’s analyses of the mechanisms of the Qur’anic text in establishing its superiority or fixing its authority. This is something that did not attract the attention of those who accused or condemned him. Thus importance comes from the credibility of ideas and the strength of concepts” (54). To say that the Qur’an is a cultural, linguistic, and historical product, and to reaffirm this at every time and occasion, is not a simple matter as Ali Harb imagines, because this objective historical idea is absolutely not accepted within the Islamic discursive domain. As for his calling attention to Abu Zayd’s analytical efforts in uncovering the mechanisms of the Qur’anic text in producing significations and meanings, this is what research and studies ought to focus on. The Qur’anic text, in its total structure, constitutes a linguistic textual phenomenon or event that repeatedly imposes its authority on the reader; all that remains for us is to search for those linguistic, semantic, and artistic mechanisms, means, and rules that it employs, by which it builds its authority and guarantees its continuity and effect.

The historical, linguistic, and literary approaches adopted by Abu Zayd and others do not in any way mean removing and stripping sacredness from the Qur’an, so much as they aim to deepen contemporary Muslims’ relation to their Qur’an, after ideological and reductionist interpretations by political authorities, religious institutions, and fundamentalist movements have wrested it from them.

List of Notes and Sourcesقائمة الهوامش والمصادر

(1) Muhammad Abed al-Jabri: Introduction to the Qur’an, Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut, first edition, 2008, p. 9.

(2) Muhammad Miftah: The Analysis of Poetic Discourse: The Strategy of Intertextuality, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, third edition, 1992, p. 120.

(3) Muhammad Miftah’s statement that the text is a verbal corpus means that it is composed of speech and is not a photograph, drawing, building, item of clothing, and so on; and his statement that it is closed means the closure of its written character. This is what makes his definition limited and confined to the sphere of written language.

(4) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth: The Will to Knowledge and the Will to Domination, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca, Morocco, fifth edition, 2006, p. 169.

(5) Abu Zayd: Thinking in the Time of Excommunication: Against Ignorance, Falsification, and Superstition, Sina Publishing, first edition, 1995, pp. 133-135.

(6) Abu Zayd: Renewal, Prohibition, and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca, Morocco, first edition, 2010, pp. 74-75.

(7) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 9. Revelation and history do not separate; therefore the phenomenon of revelation must be discovered within its historical and cultural context, and understood as a sociohistorical phenomenon on the basis of semantic, social, and historical analysis. This is what Abu Zayd sought to do in the study The Concept of the Text: A Study in the Sciences of the Qur’an.

(8) Abu Zayd: Critique of Religious Discourse, Sina Publishing, first edition, 1992, pp. 203-206.

(9) The same reference, pp. 205-206. This identification between the Qur’an and Jesus had previously been indicated by Arkoun; see: The Qur’an: From Inherited Interpretation to the Analysis of Religious Discourse, pp. 23-24.

(10) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text: A Study in the Sciences of the Qur’an, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, third edition, 1996, p. 9.

(11) The same reference, pp. 18-19.

(12) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 97.

(13) The same reference, p. 83. Culture, for semioticians, is a set of multiple systems composed of signs, at whose center lies the system of linguistic signs because it is the system into which the other systems are expressively dissolved at the level of scientific study and analysis.

(14) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text, p. 24.

(15) The same reference, p. 24.

(16) The same, p. 25.

(17) Ibid., p. 26.

(18) Ibid., p. 28.

(19) See our study: “Contemporary Qur’anology: The Qur’anic Language and the Mechanisms of Semantic Transformation,” published on the Mominoun Without Borders platform. https://www.mominoun.com/pdf1/2025-01/67869e20465911643385927.pdf (20) Abu Zayd: The Concept of the Text, pp. 33-34.

(21) Abu Zayd: Critique of Religious Discourse, pp. 118-119.

(22) Abu Zayd: Imam al-Shafi‘i and the Founding of Centrist Ideology, Madbouly Library, Cairo, second edition, 1996, p. 198.

(23) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 260.

(24) The same reference, pp. 257-258. This is confirmed by the statement of the opponents of prophecy who objected to the Qur’an’s being revealed in installments and parts: “Those who disbelieve said: Why was the Qur’an not sent down upon him all at once? Thus it is, that We may strengthen your heart by it, and We have recited it in measured recitation” (al-Furqan: 32).

(25) Alain Touraine defines historicity by saying: “the capacity enjoyed by every society to produce its own social and cultural field and its own historical milieu as well (...) What I shall call historicity, then, is the particular nature that characterizes social systems possessing the possibility of movement and action upon themselves through a set of cultural and social orientations.” See Muhammad Arkoun: Islamic Thought: A Scientific Reading, translated by Hashem Saleh, Arab Cultural Center, Beirut, second edition, 1996, p. 116.

(26) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, pp. 88-89.

(27) Abu Zayd: Circles of Fear: A Reading in the Discourse on Women, Arab Cultural Center, Beirut, first edition, 1999, p. 11. See also the third chapter of his book Thinking in the Time of Excommunication, titled “The Maligned Concept of Historicity.”

(28) Abu Zayd: Text, Authority, and Truth, p. 75.

(29) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 264.

(30) Abdullah Guennoun: al-Ta‘ashib, Moroccan Literature: History and Criticism, Dar al-Kitab al-Misri, Cairo-Beirut, second edition, n.d., p. 23.

(31) Muhammad Ahmad Khalafallah: Qur’anic Concepts, Alam al-Ma‘rifa, no. 79, 1984, pp. 7-8.

(32) Abdullah Guennoun: al-Ta‘ashib, p. 26.

(33) Ibn Khaldun (Abd al-Rahman): The Muqaddimah, introduced and edited by Ali Abd al-Wahid Wafi, Lajnat al-Bayan al-Arabi, second edition, 1965, vol. 4, chapter on the science of literature, p. 1387.

(34) Abdelfattah Kilito: Literature and Strangeness: A Structural Study in Arabic Literature, Dar Toubkal Publishing, Casablanca, Morocco, second edition, 2006, p. 24.

(35) Abu Zayd: Discourse and Interpretation, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, second edition, 2005, p. 261.

(36) Abu Zayd: Renewal, Prohibition, and Interpretation: Between Scientific Knowledge and the Fear of Excommunication, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca-Beirut, first edition, 2010, p. 124.

(37) Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani: Proofs of Inimitability, read and annotated by Mahmud Muhammad Shakir, al-Khanji Library, Cairo, second edition, 1989, p. 39.

(38) The same reference, pp. 8-9.

…the essay continues at the source.

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