translated from Turkish

Rusya’nın İHA İhlalleri: Provokasyon ile Yoklama Arasındaki Sınırın Bulanıklaşması

Russia’s drone incursions into Polish and Romanian airspace exposed NATO’s eastern-flank vulnerabilities, tested alliance procedures and political resolve, and forced a difficult balance between deterrence and escalation control.

SETA — Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (Turkey) · By CAN KASAPOĞLU · 18 September 2025 · read the original in Turkish →

In September 2025, the war in Ukraine spilled onto NATO territory when Russian unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) violated the airspace of both Poland and Romania. The most serious incident occurred on the night of September 9-10. Between 19 and 23 UAVs coming from Belarus entered Polish airspace. Polish and allied aircraft (F-16s and Dutch F-35s) neutralized some of the UAVs, while others fell in rural areas, damaging homes and vehicles but causing no loss of life. Warsaw described the incident as “a deliberate provocation,” while Moscow argued that the UAVs’ target was Ukraine and that their entry into NATO airspace had been accidental.

In the same period, Romania reported that at least one Russian UAV had briefly entered its airspace near the Black Sea. The Romanian Ministry of Defense characterized the incident as “a reckless act” and scrambled F-16s to monitor the situation, but the UAV caused no damage. Taken together, these incidents meant that, for the first time since the war began in 2022, NATO aircraft had directly shot down Russian UAVs inside alliance airspace.

After the incident, Poland invoked Article 4 of the NATO Treaty, initiating an urgent consultation process among allies. On September 12, Operation Eastern Sentry was launched, reinforcing the Alliance’s eastern flank. Additional fighter aircraft, air defense systems, and rapid-response coordination were deployed to the field. European governments strongly condemned Russia’s actions, while messages from the Trump-led United States were inconsistent. The forceful rhetoric initially used on social media was later balanced by more cautious official statements.

Although the Alliance demonstrated its readiness by shooting down the UAVs and strengthening its defenses, questions remain about Washington’s reliability and how far Moscow may be willing to go in testing NATO solidarity. In view of the approaching large-scale Russia-Belarus “Zapad 2025” exercise, the September violations were seen as a warning that further provocations might follow. This forced NATO to strike a delicate balance between deterrence and the prevention of escalation.

Distinguished experts in the field assessed the incident from different angles through detailed analyses and commentary.

Contributing Experts: Hudson InstituteHazırlayan Uzmanlar Hudson Institute

Was Russia’s use of UAVs in Polish and Romanian airspace a deliberate provocation aimed at testing NATO’s red lines, or was it directed more toward probing the Alliance’s political unity ahead of Zapad 2025? How should we read Moscow’s messages in this context?

The latest incident should be regarded not as a provocation but as a probing operation. International media largely mischaracterized it, yet radar images show that the UAVs entered Polish airspace on linear, preprogrammed routes rather than through deviations caused by electronic warfare. This points to deliberate planning and execution consistent with a coordinated attack package, rather than an accidental border violation.

The purpose of this probing was not to test NATO’s political resilience, since the Alliance has already proved that through its unified response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The operation targeted NATO’s Concept of Employment (CONEMP) and, more broadly, its Concept of Operations (CONOP). Through this incident, Moscow sought to examine how NATO uses its systems under combat conditions, its response times, decision protocols, and capacity for integration among multinational elements.

Open-source information and NATO statements confirm that Italian AWACS aircraft, Dutch F-35s and F-16s, German Patriot batteries in Poland, and aerial refueling aircraft played roles in the incident. By observing their responses, Russia may have assessed the following elements:

- Aircraft scramble times and procedures under quick reaction alert (QRA)

- The speed and scale of NATO force integration when airspace is violated

- AWACS performance in detecting, filtering, and queuing sensor data through data links

- The effectiveness of aerial refueling protocols during interception operations

- The operational role of Patriot systems: whether they engaged actively or merely provided radar coverage

- The comparative performance of NATO forces in Poland and the Ukrainian Air Force

In practice, this violation functioned as a real-world stress test. The downing of the UAVs was foreseeable, since Ukraine already demonstrates a high interception success rate. For Russia, however, the true value lay in the cumulative dataset of detailed information on NATO’s timing, procedural protocols, and coordination across platforms. This operational intelligence carries strategic importance especially in the context of the Zapad 2025 exercise, which highlights drone-intensive warfare. The incident in Poland therefore both supplied Russia with operational data and tested NATO’s preparations for drone-saturated warfare on the eastern flank.

It is important to distinguish this incident from earlier UAV violations in Romania and the Baltic states. Previous cases could reasonably be explained by Ukrainian electronic warfare activity diverting flight paths. The case in Poland, by contrast, was a deliberate attack package that maintained a steady course and clearly revealed both Russia’s intent and its focus on probing NATO’s defense architecture.

SETASETA

How do the Trump administration’s contradictory messages affect NATO’s collective deterrence posture? Could this damage European allies’ confidence in U.S. security guarantees? In addition, might Washington’s hesitant stance embolden Moscow to test NATO further?

The U.S. response to Russia’s UAV violations against Poland was inadequate and undoubtedly generated further disappointment in Europe. Donald Trump’s post-incident remark, “What’s with Russia violating Poland’s airspace with drones? Here we go!” meant nothing and showed that he had failed to develop a coherent policy toward Moscow. More troubling still was Trump’s later statement that the incident “could have been a mistake.” This statement quite rightly caused serious disappointment in Poland. Poland’s prime minister and foreign minister immediately and clearly emphasized that the incident was not a mistake. The most critical point here is that, regardless of whether the incident was a mistake, the response had to amount to a demonstration of resolve. For such incidents, whether deliberate or not, are in fact tests of resolve. And the signaling of resolve is one of the most important components of deterrence and its credibility.

It is well known that there is a significant difference between the perspectives of the United States and Europe on the war in Ukraine. Given Ukraine’s steadily diminishing capacity, Russia’s growing manpower and defense-industrial production, and Europe’s long-standing failure to shoulder sufficient burden-sharing within NATO, this difference was understandable. Yet the Trump administration’s weak response risks seriously eroding confidence in American security guarantees. At present, a quiet but widespread disappointment prevails among senior European officials, who are not satisfied with Trump’s handling of the incident. According to reports in the press, a White House official argued that Trump’s only desire was to end this war, and that the war itself was the result of Biden’s incompetence. But statements of this kind after such a critical incident only weaken Trump’s hand, because they show that the United States does not want to confront Russia.

If Trump truly wants to end the war, he should have developed a strong response to such a violation. Moreover, the Trump administration had long praised its bold leadership based on the slogan “peace through strength.” This ambitious policy was applied in European military spending, in the minerals agreement with Ukraine, and in the recent Iran crisis, but when it came to Russia this posture disappeared and proved far from impressive. Current conditions risk seriously eroding NATO’s collective deterrence and confidence in U.S. security guarantees in Europe. More than that, they could significantly encourage Russia to continue such violations. If a single violation turns into a frequently repeated chain of violations, NATO’s deterrence could suffer irreversible damage.

Hasan Kalyoncu University, SETAHasan Kalyoncu Üniversitesi, SETA

In this incident, in which NATO aircraft directly shot down Russian UAVs for the first time, what scenarios could move the Alliance from Article 4 consultations to the invocation of Article 5? How prepared is NATO for such an escalation? How should rules of engagement be shaped in order to balance deterrence with escalation control? And what diplomatic back channels exist to prevent unintended escalation between NATO and Russia?

First of all, Russian UAVs were detected first in Poland and then in Romania, and this development should be assessed on two separate planes: political and military.

Politically, Russia is sending the European continent, and especially the countries of Eastern Europe, a message with a mocking smile: “I hold the strings.” Together with Belarus, this is a way of implying, “We are very close to you.” Thus NATO and EU members experiencing fluctuations in their relations with the United States are being given a tragicomic warning. Indeed, while messages of solidarity were being issued against the Russian violations, Trump’s criticism of Europe by saying, “You are not fully implementing the oil embargo,” indirectly vindicated Russia. Russia’s airspace violations are therefore testing NATO’s and the EU’s resolve and capacity.

The military dimension can be understood from this: the use of $100,000 missiles against $10,000 UAVs, and jets chasing UAVs, lay bare both the cost imbalance and the military character of the incident. From a military standpoint, airspace violations are generally carried out for two purposes: reconnaissance and surveillance.

Within this framework, there are attempts to identify the other side’s deployments and order of battle. For this purpose, tactical UAVs that are generally not detected by radar are used. As is known, the 16 violations in Poland were carried out by UAVs that took off from Belarusian territory and could be seen by Polish radars. The UAVs reflected in the press appear to have been jet-powered, aerodynamically designed for speed, and their payloads on the lower fuselage could not be clearly distinguished.

Although technical intelligence reports have not been shared with the public, the Russian UAVs appear to be derivatives of Iranian-made Shahed-type loitering munitions. Also known as “Gerbera,” these UAVs can be used to strike radars or critical facilities by carrying radar seekers and munitions. However, since no finding regarding a payload has been reported, it is assessed that Russia may have used these UAVs mainly to test air defense, command-and-control, and response systems.

In this context, the military purpose of the Russian UAVs launched from catapults or specially designed carriers (trucks, lorries, and the like) was to “reconnoiter” the other side. Thanks to the downing of the UAVs, the Russians were able to observe the functioning of radars, the types and numbers of aircraft, takeoff runways, and reporting within the chain of command. In other words, a kind of X-ray study was carried out of Poland’s, and therefore NATO’s, force structure, capacity, and capabilities.

On the other hand, for Poland, remaining unresponsive to such a violation is not an option. Poland has probably taken measures for possible violations in accordance with a degree of “secrecy discipline.” Within this framework, cost-effective response options for every kind of scenario that might be encountered should have been prepared in advance. Yet the political panic displayed and the excessive military response reveal that these scenarios had not been thought through sufficiently.

Defense AnalystSavunma Analisti

What kinds of adjustments should NATO make to air defense and rapid-reaction mechanisms on its eastern flank in order to prevent future UAV violations? Should the permanent deployment of additional air defense elements to Poland and the Baltic countries be considered?

In September 2025, 19 Russian UAVs violated Polish airspace, while only a few could be shot down. This violation, a probing attempt by the Kremlin, exposed gaps in low-altitude air defense. NATO scrambled fighter aircraft and launched Operation Eastern Sentry, deploying additional jets to strengthen air defenses on the eastern flank.

NATO’s Integrated Air and Missile Defense (IAMD) concept envisages the allied air defense network operating in an integrated manner. At this point, a stronger Federated Mission Networking (FMN) approach is needed to ensure real-time cross-border coordination. The UAV incidents clearly revealed the need to close low-altitude gaps and increase counter-UAV capabilities. To prevent future violations, NATO should take the following steps: additional early-warning sensors (radars and electronic intelligence systems), advanced SAM batteries, anti-aircraft artillery systems, and anti-drone solutions should be deployed to Poland and the Baltic countries, and these deployments should be based on permanent rotation plans.

To address deficiencies in comprehensive early-warning capabilities, the placement of more low-altitude surveillance radars in Poland and the Baltic countries should be considered. Integrated with NATO’s Air Command and Control System (ACCS), these radars could be supported by civilian air-traffic radars and passive RF sensors to create a denser detection network. Second, for faster rules of engagement, delegating shoot-down authority to local air defense commanders without waiting for approval from higher command levels would ensure that UAVs are neutralized before they penetrate deeply.

To further strengthen its deterrence and defense posture, NATO should permanently reinforce air defenses on its eastern flank, deploy more elements in Poland and the Baltics, and implement faster reaction protocols. A continuous and layered defense posture, combined with regular exercises and clear rules of engagement, will reassure allies and send Moscow the message that every UAV violation will be met with a rapid and united response.

Finally, it should also be emphasized that, drawing on its experience in key components developed within the architecture of Turkey’s Steel Dome multilayered air defense system, such as ALP early-warning radars, HİSAR and SİPER air defense systems, electronic warfare, and C4ISR systems, Turkey has the capacity to provide systems and solutions for all the categories of need listed above.

Beyond military measures, how effective can sanctions and energy-diversification policies be in deterring Moscow from escalating cyber-kinetic hybrid attacks against NATO territory?

In fact, it is clear that they are not as effective as expected. To understand this, it is enough simply to look at the EU’s energy imports from Russia since the beginning of the Russia-Ukraine war. Immediately after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the EU, the United States, and some of their allies decided to impose sanctions on Russian energy products. The first product targeted was coal. Before the war, the EU imported roughly 50 percent of its hard coal from Russia. Although its share has fallen by about 98 percent since the beginning of the war, it has not fallen to zero, and even in 2024 the total remained above 10 billion euros.

The second product targeted was oil. The EU banned imports of crude oil in December 2022 and refined petroleum products in February 2023, but only those imported by sea. Even so, Brussels allowed oil imports by pipeline, and European buyers continued to purchase Russian oil by using “shadow” tankers. Oil under embargo was transported through tanker diversions.

Natural gas imports and nuclear energy, meanwhile, still have not been placed on the sanctions list by either the EU or the United States. European countries continue to import Russian gas through TurkStream and as liquefied natural gas (LNG). The United States, for its part, imports more than 20 percent of its enriched uranium and plutonium from Russia. In 2024, these imports reached about $624 million, only slightly below the $646 million figure recorded in 2021.

Russia’s total revenue from fossil-fuel exports since the beginning of the war is above 1.11 billion euros. The amount the EU pays for Russian energy (21.9 billion euros) is still greater than the financial assistance it provides to Ukraine (18.7 billion euros). New sanctions on Russian energy products may be imposed, but buyers in both the EU and the United States will continue to need them so long as what Moscow exports is cheaper and of higher quality.

Y done · S save · G great · B bad · N not for me